Sex differences in stress regulation of arousal and cognition
Section snippets
Sex differences in psychiatric disorders
Many neuropsychiatric disorders affect women and men differently. There are differences in the rates at which some of these disorders occur. For example, women are more likely than men to be diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression [1], [2], [3], while men are more likely than women to be diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and schizophrenia [4], [5], [6]. There are also sex differences in the presentation of these disorders, such that
Female vulnerability to stress-induced hyperarousal: Evidence from human studies
Hyperarousal is a dysregulated state of persistently being “on-edge” that contributes to increased agitation, restlessness, a lack of concentration, and sleep disruption. As noted, hyperarousal distinguishes a symptom cluster of PTSD and contributes to symptoms of depression [12]. Not only is there a female bias in these disorders [1], [2], [3], but, compared to men with PTSD and depression, women with the same disorders have greater hyperarousal symptoms, including disrupted sleep [7], [39],
Female vulnerability to stress-induced hyperarousal: Evidence from animal studies
Animal studies have revealed further sex differences in the LC and its regulation by stress (for review see [60]). In addition to its larger size in females than males of certain rat strains [55], [56], we found that dendrites of LC neurons are longer and more complex in female compared to male rats [61] (Fig. 1a,b). LC dendrites are present within the nuclear core of the LC, but they also extend into the ventromedial and dorsolateral pericoerulear (peri-LC) regions [62], [63]. Inputs into the
Male vulnerability to stress-induced cognitive deficits: Evidence from human studies
Schizophrenia and ADHD are chiefly characterized by disruptions in cognition. These disorders affect men more frequently than women, and there are also sex differences in symptomatology [6], [92], [93]. In patients with schizophrenia, most studies indicate that men have greater cognitive deficits than women [6], [94], [95], [96]. Sex differences in verbal memory deficits in schizophrenia patients are linked to distinct structural changes in the brains of men versus women [97]. Unlike female
Male vulnerability to stress-induced mnemonic deficits: Evidence from animal studies
Many studies have investigated how stress affects learning and memory in animal models, and some have considered sex differences. A portion of this literature focuses on prenatal or perinatal stress, and, generally, exposure to chronic stress early in development alters cognitive processes more in male than female rodents [34], [120], [121], [122]. In addition to early life stress, other studies have focused on how exposure to an acute stressor alters learning and memory in both sexes. For
Gonadal hormone regulation of stress effects on attention: Evidence from animal studies
Many studies investigating sex differences in the effects of stress on cognition have focused on mnemonic processes. Recently, our laboratory has been interested in whether stress alters attention in female and male rats. Specifically we wanted to determine whether CRF altered attention. A previous study found that central administration of CRF altered selective and divided attention in male rats [155], but we wanted to determine the effect of CRF on sustained attention, the ability to monitor
Implications and conclusions
The processes that underlie psychiatric disorders and cause sex differences therein are complex. The data presented here highlight that one contributing factor is sex differences in responses to stress. This emerging research suggests that stress biases females towards hyperarousal and males towards altered cognition. These data suggest that interventions designed to mitigate the effects of stress would be helpful in treating certain psychiatric disorders. Although such interventions have been
Funding Sources
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation [grant number IOS-1552416] and Pennsylvania's Commonwealth Universal Research Enhancement Program [grant number 420792].
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