Abstract
Virtually every type of sleep problem occurs in alcohol-dependent patients. Typically, these individuals take a longer time to fall asleep and show decreased sleep efficiency, shorter sleep duration and reduced amounts of slow wave sleep when compared with healthy controls. Their sleep patterns are fragmented, and the typical time course of electroencephalogram (EEG) delta wave activity is severely disrupted. The amount of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep may be reduced or increased. Sleep changes can persist during months or years of abstinence, and recent studies indicate that certain alterations in sleep architecture, as well as subjective sleep complaints, predict relapse to alcoholism.
The mechanisms of action of short and long term alcohol administration on sleep are incompletely understood. They may arise from an interaction with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT), adenosine or other neurotransmitter systems.
While only a few pharmacological and nonpharmacological strategies to improve or normalise disturbed sleep in individuals who have recovered from alcoholism have been studied, the use of benzodiazepines, other hypnosedatives or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors is not recommended. Therapies include sleep hygiene, bright light therapy, meditation, relaxation methods, and other nonpharmacological approaches.
Further studies are needed to clarify the relationship between sleep, sleep abnormalities and alcoholism, and to establish new approaches to improve sleep in alcohol-dependent patients and to prevent withdrawal reactions that affect sleep during abstinence.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Gillin JC, Drummond SP. Medication and substance abuse. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 1176–95
Brower KJ, Aldrich MS, Hall JM. Polysomnographic and subjective sleep predictors of alcoholic relapse. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22(8): 1864–71
Gillin JC, Smith TL, Irwin M, et al. Increased pressure for rapid eye movement sleep at time of hospital admission predicts relapse in nondepressed patients with primary alcoholism at 3-month follow-up. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51(3): 189–97
Clark CP, Gillin JC, Golshan S, et al. Increased REM sleep density at admission predicts relapse by three months in primary alcoholics with a lifetime diagnosis of secondary depression. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 43(8): 601–7
Drummond SP, Gillin JC, Smith TL, et al. The sleep of abstinent pure primary alcoholic patients: natural course and relationship to relapse. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22(8): 1796–802
Foster JH, Peters TJ. Impaired sleep in alcohol misusers and dependent alcoholics and the impact upon outcome. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23(6): 1044–51
Skoloda TE, Alterman AI, Gottheil E. Sleep quality reported by drinking and non-drinking alcoholics. In: Gottheil EL, editor. Addiction research and treatment: converging trends. New York: Pergamon Press, 1979: 102–12
Vitiello MV. Sleep, alcohol and alcohol abuse. Addiction Biol 1997; 2: 151–8
Mayo-Smith MF. Pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal. A meta-analysis and evidence-based practice guideline. American Society of Addiction Medicine Working Group on Pharmacological Management of Alcohol Withdrawal [see comments]. JAMA 1997; 278(2): 144–51
Lands WE. Alcohol, slow wave sleep, and the somatotropic axis. Alcohol 1999; 18(2-3): 109–22
Rechtschaffen A, Kales A, editors. A manual of standardized terminology, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages of human subjects. Los Angeles (CA): UCLA Brain Information Service/Brain Research Institute, 1968
Preud’homme XA, Lanquart J-P, Mendlewicz J, et al. Characteristics of spontaneous sleep with varying NREMS episodes in healthy men: implication for delta activity homeostasis. Sleep 2000; 23(2): 193–203
Borbély AA, Baumann F, Brandeis D, et al. Sleep deprivation: effect on sleep stages and EEG power density in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1981; 51(5): 483–95
Borbély AA, Achermann P. Sleep homeostasis and models of sleep regulation. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 377–90
Borbély AA. A two process model of sleep regulation. Hum Neurobiol 1982; 1(3): 195–204
Daan S, Beersma DG, Borbély AA. Timing of human sleep: recovery process gated by a circadian pacemaker. Am J Physiol 1984; 246 (2 Pt 2): R161–R83
Werth E, Dijk DJ, Achermann P, et al. Dynamics of the sleep EEG after an early evening nap: experimental data and simulations. Am J Physiol 1996; 271 (3 Pt 2): R501–R10
Aeschbach D, Borbély AA. All-night dynamics of the sleep EEG. J Sleep Res 1993; 2: 70–81
Dijk DJ, Hayes B, Czeisler CA. Dynamics of electroencephalographic sleep spindles and slow wave activity in men: effect of sleep deprivation. Brain Res 1993; 626(1-2): 190–9
Gresham SC, Webb WB, Williams RL. Alcohol and caffeine: effect on inferred visual dreaming. Science 1963; 140: 1226–7
Yules RB, Freedman DX, Chandler KA. The effect of ethyl alcohol on man’s electroencephalographic sleep cycle. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1966; 20(2): 109–11
Knowles JB, Laverty SG, Kuechler HA. Effects of alcohol on REM sleep. Q J Stud Alcohol 1968; 29(2): 342–9
Rundell OH, Lester BK, Griffiths WJ, et al. Alcohol and sleep in young adults. Psychopharmacologia 1972; 26(3): 201–18
MacLean AW, Cairns J. Dose-response effects of ethanol on the sleep of young men. J Stud Alcohol 1982; 43(5): 434–44
Williams DL, MacLean AW, Cairns J. Dose-response effects of ethanol on the sleep of young women. J Stud Alcohol 1983; 44(3): 515–23
Madsen BW, Rossi L. Sleep and Michaelis-Menten elimination of ethanol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980; 27(1): 114–9
Landolt HP, Roth C, Dijk DJ, et al. Late-afternoon ethanol intake affects nocturnal sleep and the sleep EEG in middle-aged men. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16(6): 428–36
Thorpy MJ. Classification of sleep disorders. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 547–57
Vestal RE, McGuire EA, Tobin JD, et al. Aging and ethanol metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 21(3): 343–54
Pozzato G, Moretti M, Franzin F, et al. Ethanol metabolism and aging: the role of ‘first pass metabolism’ and gastric alcohol dehydrogenase activity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1995; 50(3):B135–B41
Dijk DJ, Brunner DP, Aeschbach D, et al. The effects of ethanol on human sleep EEG power spectra differ from those of benzodiazepine receptor agonists. Neuropsychopharmacology 1992; 7(3): 225–32
Roehrs T, Beare D, Zorick F, et al. Sleepiness and ethanol effects on simulated driving. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1994; 18(1): 154–8
Dawson A, Lehr P, Bigby BG, et al. Effect of bedtime ethanol on total inspiratory resistance and respiratory drive in normal nonsnoring men. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993; 17(2): 256–62
LeBon O, Verbanck P, Hoffmann G, et al. Sleep in detoxified alcoholics: impairment of most standard sleep parameters and increased risk for sleep apnea, but not for myoclonias — a controlled study. J Stud Alcohol 1997; 58(1): 30–6
Aldrich MS, Shipley JE. Alcohol use and periodic limb movements of sleep. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993; 17(1): 192–6
Benca RM, Obermeyer WH, Thisted RA, et al. Sleep and psychiatric disorders. A meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49(8): 651–68
Mello NK, Mendelson JH. Behavioral studies of sleep patterns in alcoholics during intoxication and withdrawal. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1970; 175(1): 94–112
Allen RP, Wagman AM, Funderburk FR. Slow wave sleep changes: alcohol tolerance and treatment implications. Adv Exp Med Biol 1977; 85A: 629–40
Johnson LC, Burdick JA, Smith J. Sleep during alcohol intake and withdrawal in the chronic alcoholic. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1970; 22(5): 406–18
Smith JW, Johnson LC, Burdick JA. Sleep, psychological and clinical changes during alcohol withdrawal in NAD-treated alcoholics. Q J Stud Alcohol 1971; 32(4): 982–94
Allen RP, Wagman A, Faillace LA, et al. Electroencephalographic (EEG) sleep recovery following prolonged alcohol intoxication in alcoholics. J Nerv Ment Dis 1971; 153(6): 424–33
Nakazawa Y, Yokoyama T, Koga Y, et al. Polysomnographic study of terminal sleep following delirium tremens. Drug Alcohol Depend 1981; 8(2): 111–7
Kotorii T, Nakazawa Y, Yokoyama T, et al. Terminal sleep following delirium tremens in chronic alcoholics — polysomnographic and behavioral study. Drug Alcohol Depend 1982; 10(2-3): 125–34
Wagman AM, Allen RP. Effects of alcohol ingestion and abstinence on slow wave sleep of alcoholics. Adv Exp Med Biol 1975; 59: 453–66
Gillin JC, Smith TL, Irwin M, et al. EEG sleep studies in ‘pure’ primary alcoholism during subacute withdrawal: relationships to normal controls, age, and other clinical variables. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27(5): 477–88
Brown SA, Inaba RK, Gillin JC, et al. Alcoholism and affective disorder: clinical course of depressive symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152(1): 45–52
Feighner JP, Robins E, Guze SB, et al. Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972; 26(1): 57–63
Cadoret R, Winokur G. Depression in alcoholism. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1974; 233: 34–9
Schuckit MA. The clinical implications of primary diagnostic groups among alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42(11): 1043–9
Moeller FG, Gillin JC, Irwin M, et al. A comparison of sleep EEGs in patients with primary major depression and major depression secondary to alcoholism. J Affect Disord 1993; 27(1): 39–42
Clark CP, Gillin JC, Golshan S, et al. Polysomnography and depressive symptoms in primary alcoholics with and without a lifetime diagnosis of secondary depression and in patients with primary major depression. J Affect Disord 1999; 52(1-3): 177–85
Williams HL, Rundell OJ. Altered sleep physiology in chronic alcoholics: reversal with abstinence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1981; 5(2): 318–25
Eckardt MJ, File SE, Gessa GL, et al. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22(5): 998–1040
Little HJ. The contribution of electrophysiology to knowledge of the acute and chronic effects of ethanol. Pharmacol Ther 1999; 84(3): 333–53
Borbély AA, Tobler I. Endogenous sleep-promoting substances and sleep regulation. Physiol Rev 1989; 69(2): 605–70
Steriade M, McCormick DA, Sejnowski TJ. Thalamocortical oscillations in the sleeping and aroused brain. Science 1993; 262(5134): 679–85
Benington JH, Heller HC. Restoration of brain energy metabolism as the function of sleep. Prog Neurobiol 1995; 45(4): 347–60
McCormick DA, Bal T. Sleep and arousal: thalamocortical mechanisms. Annu Rev Neurosci 1997; 20: 185–215
Dijk DJ, Cajochen C. Melatonin and the circadian regulation of sleep initiation, consolidation, structure, and the sleep EEG. J Biol Rhythms 1997; 12(6): 627–35
Zoltoski RK, Cabeza RdJ, Gillin JC. Biochemical pharmacology of sleep. In: Chokroverty S, editor. Sleep disorders medicine: basic science, technical considerations and clinical aspects. 2nd ed. Boston (MA): Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998: 63–94
Lancel M. Role of GABAa receptors in the regulation of sleep: initial sleep responses to peripherally administered modulators and agonists. Sleep 1999; 22(1): 33–42
Landolt HP, Gillin JC. GABAA1a receptors: involvement in sleep regulation and potential of selective agonist in the treatment of insomnia. CNS Drugs 2000; 13(3): 185–99
Sinton CM, McCarley RW. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological aspects of sleep: basic science and clinical relevance. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5(1): 6–19
Borbély AA. Principles of sleep regulation: implications for the effect of hypnotics on sleep. In: Kales A, editor. Pharmacology of sleep. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1995: 29–45
Dijk DJ, Roth C, Landolt HP, et al. Melatonin effect on daytime sleep in men: suppression of EEG low frequency activity and enhancement of spindle frequency activity. Neurosci Lett 1995; 201(1): 13–6
Tenn CC, Niles LP. Central-type benzodiazepine receptors mediate the antidopaminergic effect of clonazepam and melatonin in 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned rats: involvement of a GABAergic mechanism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995; 274 (1): 84–9
Lancel M, Cronlein TA, Faulhaber J. Role of GABAa receptors in sleep regulation. Differential effects of muscimol and midazolam on sleep in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 15(1): 63–74
Faulhaber J, Steiger A, Lancel M. The GABAA agonist THIP produces slow wave sleep and reduces spindling activity in NREM sleep in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997; 130(3): 285–91
Lancel M, Faulhaber J, Deisz RA. Effect of the GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine on sleep and EEG power spectra in the rat. Br J Pharmacol 1998; 123(7): 1471–7
Seifritz E, Moore P, Trachsel L, et al. The 5-HT1A agonist ipsapirone enhances EEG slow wave activity in human sleep and produces a power spectrum similar to 5-HT2 blockade. Neurosci Lett 1996; 209(1): 41–4
Dijk DJ, Beersma DG, Daan S, et al. Effects of seganserin, a 5-HT2 antagonist, and temazepam on human sleep stages and EEG power spectra. Eur J Pharmacol 1989; 171(2-3): 207–18
Landolt HP, Meier V, Burgess HJ, et al. Serotonin-2 receptors and human sleep: effect of a selective antagonist on EEG power spectra. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999; 21(3): 455–66
Suzdak PD, Schwartz RD, Skolnick P, et al. Ethanol stimulates gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor-mediated chloride transport in rat brain synaptoneurosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986; 83(11): 4071–5
Aguayo LG. Ethanol potentiates the GABAA-activated Cl-current in mouse hippocampal and cortical neurons. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 187(1): 127–30
Minami K, Minami M, Harris RA. Inhibition of 5-hydroxytrypt-amine type 2A receptor-induced currents by n-alcohols and anesthetics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997; 281(3): 1136–43
Gervasoni D, Peyron C, Rampon C, et al. Role and origin of the GABAergic innervation of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons. J Neurosci 2000; 20(11): 4217–25
Benington JH, Kodali SK, Heller HC. Stimulation of Al adenosine receptors mimics the electroencephalographic effects of sleep deprivation. Brain Res 1995; 692(1-2): 79–85
Schwierin B, Borbely AA, Tobler l. Effects of N6-cyclopentyl-adenosine and caffeine on sleep regulation in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1996; 300(3): 163–71
Nagy LE, Diamond I, Casso DJ, et al. Ethanol increases extracellular adenosine by inhibiting adenosine uptake via the nucleoside transporter. J Biol Chem 1990; 265(4): 1946–51
Krauss SW, Ghirnikar RB, Diamond I, et al. Inhibition of adenosine uptake by ethanol is specific for one class of nucleoside transporters. Mol Pharmacol 1993; 44(5): 1021–6
Landolt HP, Dijk DJ, Gaus SE, et al. Caffeine reduces lowfrequency delta activity in the human sleep EEG. Neuropsychopharmacology 1995; 12(3): 229–38
Landolt HP, Werth E, Borbely AA, et al. Caffeine intake (200 mg) in the morning affects human sleep and EEG power spectra at night. Brain Res 1995; 675(1-2): 67–74
Diao L, Dunwiddie TV. Interactions between ethanol, endogenous adenosine and adenosine uptake in hippocampal brain slices. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1996; 278(2): 542–6
Krueger JM, Obal FJ, Fang J. Humoral regulation of physiological sleep: cytokines and GHRH. J Sleep Res 1999; 8Suppl. 1: 53–9
VanCauter E, Copinschi G. Interactions between growth hormone secretion and sleep. In: Smith RG, Thorner MO, editors. Human growth hormone: research and clinical practice. Totowa (NJ): Humana Press, 2000: 261–83
VanCauter E, Plat L, Scharf MB, et al. Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young men. J Clin Invest 1997; 100(3): 745–53
Gronfier C, Luthringer R, Follenius M, et al. A quantitative evaluation of the relationships between growth hormone secretion and delta wave electroencephalographic activity during normal sleep and after enrichment in delta waves. Sleep 1996; 19(10): 817–24
Prinz PN, Roehrs TA, Vitaliano PP, et al. Effect of alcohol on sleep and nighttime plasma growth hormone and cortisol concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 51(4): 759–64
Chalmers RJ, Bennie EH, Johnson RH, et al. Growth hormone, prolactin, and corticosteroid responses to insulin hypoglycaemia in alcoholics. BMJ 1978; 1(6115): 745–8
Meyer RE. Prospects for a rational pharmacotherapy of alcoholism. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50(11): 403–12
Freund G, Ballinger WE. Loss of muscarinic and benzodiazepine neuroreceptors from hippocampus of alcohol abusers. Alcohol 1989; 6: 23–31
Freund G, Anderson KJ. Glutamate receptors in the frontal cortex of alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996; 20(7): 1165–72
Kaplan GB, Bharmal NH, Leite-Morris KA, et al. Role of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Alcohol 1999; 19(2): 157–62
Faingold C, Li Y, Evans MS. Decreased GABA and increased glutamate receptor-mediated activity on inferior colliculus neurons in vitro are associated with susceptibility to ethanol withdrawal seizures. Brain Res 2000; 868: 287–95
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Fowler JS, et al. Decreases in dopa-mine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1996; 20(9): 1594–8
Laine TPJ, Ahonen A, Torniainen P, et al. Dopamine transporters increase in human brain after alcohol withdrawal. Mol Psychiatry 1999; 4: 189–91
Balldin JI, Berggren UC, Lindstedt G. Neuroendocrine evidence for reduced dopamine receptor sensitivity in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1992; 16(1): 71–4
Heinz A, Ragan P, Jones DW, et al. Reduced central serotonin transporters in alcoholism. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155(11): 1544–9
Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N. Neuropharmacological treatments for alcoholism: scientific basis and clinical findings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2000; 149: 327–44
Kranzler HR. Pharmacotherapy of alcoholism: gaps in knowledge and opportunities for research. Alcohol Alcohol 2000; 35(6): 537–47
Snyder S, Karacan I, Salis PJ. Effects of disulfiram on the sleep of chronic alcoholics. Curr Alcohol 1981; 8: 159–66
Thompson WL. Management of alcohol withdrawal syndromes. Arch Intern Med 1978; 138(2): 278–83
Landolt HP, Finelli LA, Roth C, et al. Zolpidem and sleep deprivation: different effect on EEG power spectra. J Sleep Res 2000; 9(2): 175–83
Rouhani S, Dall’Ava-Santucci J, Bajenaru O, et al. Effects of muscimol or homotaurine on sleep-wake states in alcohol-dependent rats during withdrawal. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1998; 59(4): 955–60
Emri Z, Antal K, Crunelli V. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid decreases thalamic sensory excitatory postsynaptic potentials by an action on presynaptic GABAb receptors. Neurosci Lett 1996; 216(2): 121–4
Galloway GP, Frederick SL, Staggers Jr FE, et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate: an emerging drug of abuse that causes physical dependence. Addiction 1997; 92(1): 89–96
Karam-Hage M, Brower KJ. Gabapentin treatment for insomnia associated with alcohol dependence [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157(1): 151
Idzikowski C, Mills FJ, Glennard R. 5-Hydroxytryptamine-2 antagonist increases human slow wave sleep. Brain Res 1986; 378(1): 164–8
Borbély AA, Trachsel L, Tobler I. Effect of ritanserin on sleep stages and sleep EEG in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1988; 156 (2): 275–8
Monti JM, Alterwain P, Estevez F, et al. The effects of ritanserin on mood and sleep in abstinent alcoholic patients. Sleep 1993; 16(7): 647–54
Monti JM, Alterwain P. Ritanserin decreases alcohol intake in chronic alcoholics [letter]. Lancet 1991; 337(8732): 60
Johnson BA, Jasinski DR, Galloway GP, et al. Ritanserin in the treatment of alcohol dependence — a multi-center clinical trial. Ritanserin Study Group. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 128(2): 206–15
LeMarquand D, Pihl RO, Benkelfat C. Serotonin and alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence: clinical evidence. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 36(5): 326–37
Adrien J. Are other 5-HT receptors besides 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness. J Sleep Res 1992; 1: 176–7
Adrien J. The serotoninergic system and sleep-wakefulness regulation. In: Kales A, editor. The pharmacology of sleep. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1995: 91–116
Rothe B, Guldner J, Hohlfeldt E, et al. Effects of 5HT3 receptor antagonism by tropisetron on the sleep EEG and on nocturnal hormone secretion. Neuropsychopharmacology 1994; 11(2): 101–6
Johnson BA, Roache JD, Javors MA, et al. Ondansetron for reduction of drinking among biologically predisposed alcoholic patients. JAMA 2000; 284(8): 963–71
Cloninger CR. Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 1987; 236: 410–6
Ekman AC, Leppaluoto J, Huttunen P, et al. Ethanol inhibits melatonin secretion in healthy volunteers in a dose-dependent randomized double blind cross-over study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 77(3): 780–3
Schmitz MM, Sepandj A, Pichler PM, et al. Disrupted melatonin-secretion during alcohol withdrawal. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1996; 20(6): 983–95
Dolberg OT, Hirschmann S, Grunhaus L. Melatonin for the treatment of sleep disturbances in major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155(8): 1119–21
Shamir E, Laudon M, Barak Y, et al. Melatonin improves sleep quality of patients with chronic schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(5): 373–7
White DP. Central sleep apnea. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 827–39
Sanders MH. Medical therapy for obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 879–93
Kryger MH. Management of obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome: overview. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 940–54
Montplaisir J, Nicolas A, Godbout R, et al. Restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 2000: 742–52
Morin CM, Culbert JP, Schwartz SM. Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: a meta-analysis of treatment efficacy. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151(8): 1172–80
Morin CM, Colecchi C, Stone J, et al. Behavioral and pharmacological therapies for late-life insomnia: a randomized controlled trial [see comments]. JAMA 1999; 281(11): 991–9
Schmitz M, Frey R, Pichler P, et al. Sleep quality during alcohol withdrawal with bright light therapy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1997; 21(6): 965–77
Avery DH, Boite MA, Ries R. Dawn simulation treatment of abstinent alcoholics with winter depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59(1): 36–42
Rogers J. Homoeopathy and the treatment of alcohol-related problems. Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery 1997; 3(1): 21–8
Acknowledgements
The authors have been supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (823A-056616), the National Institute of Mental Health (MH38738), the UCSD Mental Health Clinical Research Center (MH30914), the Veterans Affairs Medical Research Service, the UCSD General Clinical Research Center (Michael Ziegler, MD, Director), and the UCSD Fellowship in Clinical Psychopharmacology and Psychobiology (Michael Irwin, MD, Director).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Landolt, HP., Gillin, J.C. Sleep Abnormalities During Abstinence in Alcohol-Dependent Patients. Mol Diag Ther 15, 413–425 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200115050-00006
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200115050-00006