AGIX-4207 [2-[4-[[1-[[3,5-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]thio]-1-methylethyl]thio]-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenoxy]acetic Acid], a Novel Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Compound: Cellular and Biochemical Characterization of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Redox-Sensitive Inflammatory Gene Expression

Abstract

The pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, is regulated, at least in part, by modulation of oxidation-reduction (redox) homeostasis and the expression of redox-sensitive inflammatory genes including adhesion molecules, chemokines, and cytokines. AGIX-4207 [2-[4-[[1-[[3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]thio]-1-methylethyl]thio]-2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenoxy]acetic acid] is a novel, orally active, phenolic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound with antirheumatic properties. To elucidate its anti-inflammatory mechanisms, we evaluated AGIX-4207 for a variety of cellular, biochemical, and molecular properties. AGIX-4207 exhibited potent antioxidant activity toward lipid peroxides in vitro and displayed enhanced cellular uptake relative to a structurally related drug, probucol. This resulted in potent inhibition of cellular levels of reactive oxygen species in multiple cell types. AGIX-4207 selectively inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-inducible levels of the redox-sensitive genes, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, with less inhibition of E-selectin, and no effect on intracellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in endothelial cells. In addition, AGIX-4207 inhibited cytokine-induced levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-8 from endothelial cells and human fibroblast-like synoviocytes as well as lipopolysaccharide-induced release of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. AGIX-4207 did not inhibit TNF-α-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor of the κ-enhancer in B cells (NF-κB), suggesting that the mechanism of action is independent of this redox-sensitive transcription factor. Taken together, these results provide a mechanistic framework for understanding the anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic activity of AGIX-4207 and provide further support for the view that inhibition of redox-sensitive inflammatory gene expression is an attractive approach for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.