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ENDOCRINE AND DIABETES
Department of Pharmacology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, (M.K., K.C., P.H.Y.); and Institute of Organic Chemistry, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Kiyv, Ukraine (S.B.)
Received for publication
April 10, 2007
Accepted
June 26, 2007.
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Abstract |
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-amyloid aggregation. Thus, AG can be an aldehyde scavenger in addition to blocking advanced glycation and inhibition of SSAO and NOS activity. Such reactions may contribute to its pharmacological effects in the treatment of vascular disorders associated with diabetic complications and other disorders.
). AG effectively blocks protein glycation, and it prevents the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in vitro and in vivo (Brownlee et al., 1986; Skamarauskas et al., 1996). Information on AG and AGEs has generated the idea of a strategy to break the existing AGE cross-links (Vasan et al., 2003). Mounting evidence indicates that AG is quite effective in preventing diabetic complications (Cameron and Cotter, 1996; Friedman et al., 1997; Forbes et al., 2004), arterial stiffening (Corman et al., 1998; Chang et al., 2006), atherosclerosis (Panagiotopoulos et al., 1998), stroke (Zhang et al., 1996), kidney damage (Soulis et al., 1996; Bolton et al., 2004), and even ischemic cerebral neurodegeneration (Zimmerman et al., 1995) in animal studies. AG has significant clinical implications in the treatment of disorders associated with advanced glycation. Although the potential side effects of AG are of serious concern (Oturai et al., 1996; Freedman et al., 1999), AG serves as a prototype agent for future drug development aiming to prevent the formation of AGEs (Thornalley, 2003).
AG is also capable of inhibiting enzymes that possess carbonyl groups as cofactors, such as nitric-oxide synthase (NOS) (Alderton et al., 2001) and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) (Yu and Zuo, 1997). Both enzymes may be involved in a cytotoxic cascade. SSAO is located on the outer cell surface of vascular smooth muscles and endothelial cells (Yu et al., 2003), and it circulates in the blood, probably as result of shedding from the vasculatures (Abella et al., 2004). An increase in serum SSAO activities was found in patients with diabetic complications, vascular disorders, and heart failure (Yuen et al., 1987; Ishizaki, 1990; Boomsma et al., 1995, 1997; Garpenstrand et al., 1999). Increased serum SSAO has been identified as an independent prognostic risk factor for heart patients (Boomsma et al., 2000).
Methylamine and aminoacetone are endogenous substrates for SSAO (Yu, 1990; Deng and Yu, 1999). The deaminated products include formaldehyde and methylglyoxal, respectively, as well as hydrogen peroxide and ammonium (Yu and Zuo, 1993; Yu et al., 2002, 2003). Formaldehyde and methylglyoxal are extremely reactive and capable of forming Schiff's bases with free amino or amide groups of proteins (Gubisne-Haberle et al., 2004), and subsequently, they form methylene bridges and produce irreversible cross-linked complexes between proteins and single-stranded DNA (Bolt, 1987). This was thought to contribute to protein misfolding, associated with many chronic pathological conditions (Yu et al., 2003). Selective SSAO inhibitors have been shown to protect SSAO-mediated toxicity in vitro (Yu and Zuo, 1993) and to prevent atherogenesis (Yu and Zuo, 1996; Yu et al., 2002) and lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in animal models (Yu et al., 2006). AG, at concentrations many times lower than required for blocking advanced protein glycation, has been shown to inhibit SSAO in vitro and in vivo (Yu and Zuo, 1997). In this study, we investigate whether AG scavenges free endogenous aldehydes in addition to inhibiting SSAO activity.
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Materials and Methods |
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-Amyloid (A1–40) was purchased from BioSource International (Camarillo, CA), and 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) and methylglyoxal were from Sigma-Aldrich. Formaldehyde was obtained from BDH (Toronto, ON, Canada). Methanol (10–15%), which prevents polymerization, is included in the 37% formaldehyde solution. Microfluor black plates (96-well) for the fluorometry were purchased from Dynex Technologies (Chantilly, VA). Animals. Male CD1 Swiss White mice weighing 30 g were used in the experiments. The animals were housed in hanging wire cages with free access to food and water on a 12-h light/dark cycle (lights on at 6:00 AM) at a temperature of 19–20°C. The experimental protocol has been designed according to the guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care, and it was approved by University of Saskatchewan Animal Care Committee. Mice were treated with 200 µl of saline i.p. or 100 mg/kg aminoguanidine i.p., and subsequently, 1 h later, with 10 mg/kg formaldehyde i.p. (in 200 µl of saline). After the last injection, mice were placed in metabolic cages for urine collection. To substantiate the formation of formaldehyde-protein adducts derived from deamination of methylamine, radioactively labeled [14C]methylamine (5 µCi; 100 µl) was administered via tail vein intravenous injection after pretreatment with aminoguanidine or saline. Animals were sacrificed after 3 days, and the dissected tissues (n = 3–5) were further divided into three parts for independent analyses for radioactive residuals
Urine Collection. Mice were placed in metabolic cages (Nalgene, Rochester, NY) for urine collection for a period of 24 h. The urinecollecting vessels were positioned over Styrofoam containers filled with dry ice, thereby freezing the urine immediately after excretion. During urine collection, the animals were allowed free access to tap water, but food was withheld.
Derivatization of Aminoguanidine with Fmoc. For the derivatization, 500 µl of 0.8 M potassium-borate buffer, pH 10, was added to 1.0-ml samples and vortexed for 60 s. One milliliter of Fmoc-Cl reagent solution (10 mM in acetonitrile) was then added to the buffered samples and vigorously vortexed for 1 min. The reaction was terminated by extraction of excess reagent (Fmoc-Cl), and its hydrolysis product Fmoc-OH, and acetonitrile with 5.0 ml of hexane. The top hexane layer was discarded, and this procedure was repeated twice. The potassium-borate buffer was neutralized by addition of 0.1 ml of 20% (v/v) acetic acid. Aliquots (250 µl) of these samples were subjected to HPLC analysis.
Chromatography. The HPLC system was composed of a Shimadzu solvent delivery module (LC-10 ADvp; Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan), a Shimadzu autoinjector (SIL-10ADvp), a Shimadzu DGU-14A degasser, and a reverse phase HPLC column [Beckman Ultrasphere IP C18 5-µm column (4.6 x 250 mm); Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, CA]. A Shimadzu SPD-10AvpUV-visible detector was used for spectrophotometric detection. For determination of the aminoguanidine, a tertiary gradient system, based on previous methods for analysis of amino acids (Kazachkov and Yu, 2005), was used. Solvent A was 20 mM citric acid containing 5 mM tetramethylammonium chloride (TMA), adjusted to pH 2.85 with 20 mM sodium acetate containing 5 mM TMA. Solvent B was 80% (v/v) 20 mM sodium acetate solution containing 5 mM TMA adjusted to pH 4.5 with concentrated phosphoric acid and 20% (v/v) 100% methanol. Solvent C was 100% acetonitrile. The flow rate was maintained at 1.4 ml/min throughout the analysis. Separation was performed at a column temperature of 25°C. Absorbance was measured at 265 nm.
Determination of Urinary Aldehydes. A previously described HPLC-spectrophotometric method (Yu and Deng, 1998) was used for determination of aldehydes. Aldehydes were derivatized with DNPH, and propionaldehyde was used as an internal standard. During the course of the investigation, we found that formaldehyde-AG adduct was cleaved at pH 2.0 (which is used in the conventional DNPH procedure), so both free and released formaldehyde were detected. At pH 5.5, DNPH derivatization proceeded well, but AG-formaldehyde adducts did not cleave; therefore, only free formaldehyde was detected. Consequently, the derivatization procedure was conducted under two conditions, namely 1) 10 mM DNPH prepared in 2 N HCl and 2) DNPH dissolved in distilled water containing 50% acetonitrile. The derivatization was conducted in 25-ml screw-capped tubes containing aliquots of urine (0.2 ml), 200 nM propionaldehyde, and 200 µM DNPH in HCl solution, pH 2.0, or in 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 5.5, in a total volume of 5 ml, which was mixed and incubated at 37°C for 10 min. The hydrazone products were vigorously extracted twice with 10 ml of pentane. The pentane extracts were evaporated at 40°C under a nitrogen stream in a water bath, and the dried precipitates were carefully dissolved in 500 µlof acetonitrile. Aliquots (20 µl) of the concentrated samples were subjected to HPLC analysis. Elution was isocratic with a mobile phase containing 49% acetonitrile in water at a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. Spectrophotometric detection at 330 nm was conducted using a Shimadzu SPD-10AvpUV-VIS detector.
Distribution of Residual Radioactivity in Tissues following Administration of [14C]Methylamine. Three days after treatment with [14C]methylamine, mice were sacrificed, and radioactive residual activities in different tissues were analyzed. The dissected tissues were homogenized in 0.2 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.5 [1:20 (w/v)]. Aliquots of the homogenates were transferred to counting vials containing 25 µl of Solvable (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA) and 10 ml of aqueous counting scintillation fluid (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ). Radioactivities were assessed by liquid scintillation spectrometry (LS6500 multipurpose liquid scintillation counter; Beckman Coulter).
HPLC-Mass Spectrometry. The products following interaction between aminoguanidine and formaldehyde were analyzed by electrospray mass spectrometry (Quattro Ultima; Micromass, Manchester, UK). Aminoguanidine (0.2 mM) was incubated in 1 mM formaldehyde for 2 h at 37°C. Mass spectrometric analysis was conducted in both positive and negative ion MS1-mode (m/z 50–850). The source temperature was 120°C, and the capillary voltage was 2.53 kV with a cone voltage of 45 V.
Interactions of -Amyloid1–40 with Aldehydes. Freshly prepared seed-free A1–40 at 1 mg/ml was incubated with different concentrations of aminoguanidine (2–50 mM) in the presence or absence of 1 mM formaldehyde in 20 mM phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4, in 0.2 ml of Eppendorf tubes at 37°C without shaking or pipetting. A seed-free monomer solution of A1–40 peptide was pretreated immediately before each experiment. A1–40 was dissolved in 100% HFIP at 1 mg/ml, and the sample was incubated in a water bath sonicator at 4°C for 2 h. The HFIP was removed under a gentle stream of nitrogen. The treated A1–40 crystals were dissolved in NANOpure water (Barnstead, Dubuque, IA) and used immediately. The purity of A monomers (free of oligomers) was ensured by an assessment using an oligomer specific antibody. The final A concentration was determined using a Bradford protein assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA).
Thioflavine T Fluorometry of -Sheet Formation of -Amyloid. ThT fluorescence assays reveal the early stage of A1–40 aggregation, i.e., -sheet formation (Chen et al., 2006). A (final concentration at 10 µg/ml) was incubated in the presence or absence of aldehydes in a total reaction mixture of 200 µl (in 50 mM glycine-NaOH buffer, pH 9.0). Aliquots of the reaction solution were transferred to black Microfluor plates at different time intervals for fluorescence readings. Fluorescence was monitored at an excitation wavelength of 450 nm and an emission wavelength of 482 nm using a Spectra Max Gemini XS fluorescence reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA).
Statistics. The results were assessed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by multiple comparisons (Newman-Keuls test). The null hypothesis used for all analyses was that the factor had no influence on the measured variable. Significance was accepted at the >95% confidence level.
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Results |
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The interaction between formaldehyde and AG is slightly affected by pH in favor of alkaline conditions (data not shown). The rates of the disappearance of the AG after incubation of the two reagents at pH 7.4 were assessed. Analysis of the AG-Fmoc derivative by HPLC indicated, the major AG-Fmoc peak dramatically diminished after interaction with formaldehyde (Fig. 2). Interestingly, at least four additional peaks were noted in the chromatogram, representing unidentified formaldehyde-AG adducts. These products retain at least one free amino group to interact with Fmoc-Cl.
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). The radioactive deposition can be effectively reduced by pretreatment with both a selective SSAO inhibitor and AG. Interestingly, AG is significantly more effective in the inhibition of the radioactive deposition compared with the highly selective and potent SSAO inhibitor MDL-72974A, which is more potent in blocking SSAO activity in vivo than AG. Subsequent experiments indicate that AG is capable of scavenging formaldehyde, which may be due to incomplete inhibition of deamination of methylamine, in addition to its inhibitory effect on SSAO.
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Radioactive Tracing of [14C]AG following Interaction with Formaldehyde in Vitro and in Vivo. The interaction between AG and formaldehyde was also traced using carbon-14-labeled AG both in vitro and in vivo. The [14C]AG and formaldehyde adducts were revealed using the same Fmoc/HPLC procedure as described above. As shown in Fig. 6A, the HPLC fractions were collected, and the radioactivity in each fraction was determined. AG exhibits a major peak at fraction 10 to 11 along with a minor peak at around fractions 19 to 20. After interaction with formaldehyde, the AG peak disappeared, and instead, a considerable amount of activity was detected in the solvent front. In addition, several new peaks containing radioactivity were detected in fractions 31 and 33 as well as in the solvent front.
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Structural Analysis. To characterize the product of the reaction, AG was incubated with formaldehyde for 2 h and then analyzed by mass spectrometry. As shown in Fig. 7, the absolute major ion has a mass of 87.0876, which corresponds to the aminoguanidine methylene ion with positive ionization. A number of minor spikes of larger ion masses were not identified
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-Amyloid1–40 -Sheet Formation. Figure 8 reveals the effect of AG on the formation of amyloid -sheet in vitro by a ThT fluorometry. Formaldehyde significantly enhances the -sheet formation. AG by itself does not affect the formation of amyloid -sheets, but it effectively blocks the formaldehyde-induced induction of -amyloid folding.
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Discussion |
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,-dicarbonyl scavenger, prevents protein glycation, which leads to accumulation of AGEs, and it is implicated to various age-related disorders (Thornalley, 2003). The hydrazine moiety of AG also reacts with other carbonyl groups, including physiologically important constituents (such as pyridoxal and some quinone compounds as enzyme cofactors) as well as with potentially harmful free aldehydes.
Formaldehyde and methylglyoxal, derived from SSAO-mediated deamination of methylamine and aminoacetone, respectively, in the vicinity of the vascular surface, have drawn considerable interest related to diabetic complications (Yu et al., 2003). Formaldehyde forms a Schiff's base between basic amino acid residues (Lys and Arg) of proteins (Gubisne-Haberle et al., 2004), and it induces A aggregation (Chen et al., 2006). Formaldehyde, along with other reactive aldehydes, i.e., malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonal generated via lipid peroxidation, may contribute to protein misfolding particularly on the vascular surface.
In the present study, we demonstrate that AG not only rapidly interacts with formaldehyde and methylglyoxal in vitro but also is capable of scavenging aldehydes in vivo. When [14C]methylamine was administered to mice, long-lasting radioactive protein residual activities were detected in all tissues. As shown in Fig. 4, both selective SSAO inhibitors and AG dramatically reduced such formation of radioactive residues. This is clearly a result of production of formaldehyde-protein adducts due to SSAO-mediated deamination of methylamine (Yu et al., 2006). Interestingly, AG, a less potent SSAO-inhibitor, is significantly more effective than the highly potent SSAO inhibitor MDL-72974A in blocking the adduct formation (Fig. 5). This result suggests that in addition to inhibition of SSAO, AG can also interact with formaldehyde due to incomplete inhibition of SSAO-mediated deamination of methylamine.
To substantiate whether AG is capable of scavenging formaldehyde in vivo, AG was administered to the animals, and the excretion of formaldehyde was assessed. The initial result was completely unexpected, namely, the urinary formaldehyde level was significantly increased rather than decreased. We conducted a number of experiments and ruled out the possibility that AG blocks formaldehyde metabolism, i.e., via aldehyde dehydrogenase (data not shown). In the initial experiment, the analyses of formaldehyde were conducted using a commonly used procedure, i.e., DNPH derivatization in strong acidic conditions followed by HPLC detection. We finally found that at such a low pH, the bond between AG and formaldehyde (of the AG-formaldehyde adducts) can be broken and thus formaldehyde would be released. We also observed that pH lower than 5.5 was required for DNPH to interact with aldehydes; yet, under such conditions, the AG-formaldehyde adducts would not be cleaved. When urine samples from the AG treated mice were analyzed with DNPH derivatization at pH 5.5, AG significantly reduced formaldehyde excretion. This is direct evidence that AG scavenges formaldehyde in vivo. The increase in formaldehyde levels under acidic conditions (i.e., below pH 2.0) is due to deconjugation of AG-formaldehyde. This is strong evidence that AG scavenges the aldehyde and that the conjugated form of adducts is excreted under physiological pH.
In an attempt to elucidate the structure of the AG-formaldehyde adducts, [14C]aminoguanidine tracing was used both in vitro and in vitro, with subsequent identification by HPLC. We observed at least four new peaks were present in the HPLC chromatographic profile in the in vitro as well as the in vivo experiments (Fig. 6). AG possesses two primary amino groups, which occupy positions 2 and 4 (see Scheme 1). Both amino groups can react with formaldehyde. As indicated in the scheme, the amino group at position 2 preferentially reacts with formaldehyde.
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AG is reported to be able to cross the blood-brain barrier and prevent cerebral ischemia and neurodegeneration (Mahar Doan et al., 2000), and AGE has been shown to be related to -amyloid polymerization (Münch et al., 1997). We have observed that formaldehyde derived from SSAO-mediated deamination can enhance -amyloid oligomerization, and we propose a role for SSAO in the formation of -amyloid plaques on the cerebral vascular surface (Chen et al., 2006). The present data show AG is able to abolish formaldehyde-induced A aggregation. The interactions between aldehydes and AG are substantially faster than between formaldehyde and proteins. Harmful aldehydes could be generated from other sources, such as malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal, as a result of lipid peroxidation (Esterbauer et al., 1991). This suggests that the beneficial effect of AG, as shown previously in animal disease models (for review, see Thornalley, 2003), may in part be due to prevention of aldehyde-induced cytotoxicity and protein misfolding.
In conclusion, AG effectively blocks advanced glycation. It also interacts with physiological important carbonyl groups, such as enzyme cofactors as well as free harmful aldehydes. The clinical implications are complicated. However, it is perhaps interesting to note that AG may be quite useful under acute circumstances of aldehyde intoxication.
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Footnotes |
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Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at http://jpet.aspetjournals.org.
ABBREVIATIONS: AG, aminoguanidine; AGE, advanced glycation end product; SSAO, semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase; Fmoc, N-(9-fluorenyl)methoxycarbonyl; Fmoc-Cl, N-(9-fluorenyl)methoxycarbonyl chloroformate; DNPH, 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; MDL-72974A, (E)-2-(4-fluorophenetyl)-fluoroallylamine; A1–40, -amyloid; HFIP, 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol; TMA, tetramethylammonium chloride; ThT, thioflavine T; ANOVA, analysis of variance; FA, formaldehyde.
Address correspondence to: Dr. Peter H. Yu, Neuropsychiatry Research Unit, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E4, Canada. E-mail: yup{at}usask.ca
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