QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: jpet.106.103846v1 318/1/424    most recent Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Salvatorelli, E. Articles by Minotti, G. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Salvatorelli, E. Articles by Minotti, G.

METABOLISM, TRANSPORT, AND PHARMACOGENOMICS

Paclitaxel and Docetaxel Stimulation of Doxorubicinol Formation in the Human Heart: Implications for Cardiotoxicity of Doxorubicin-Taxane Chemotherapies

Department of Drug Sciences and Center of Excellence on Aging (E.S., P.M., S.C., G.M.) and Department of Cardiology and Cardiac Surgery (G.L.), G. D'Annunzio University School of Medicine, Chieti, Italy; Division of Cardiac Surgery, University of Catania School of Medicine, Catania, Italy (A.M.C.); and Division of Medical Oncology A, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy (L.G.)

Received March 1, 2006; accepted April 11, 2006.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Antitumor therapy with the anthracycline doxorubicin is limited by a dose-related cardiotoxicity that is aggravated by a concomitant administration of the taxane paclitaxel. Previous limited studies with isolated human heart cytosol showed that paclitaxel was able to stimulate an NADPH-dependent reduction of doxorubicin to its toxic secondary alcohol metabolite doxorubicinol. Here we characterized that 0.25 to 2.5 µM paclitaxel caused allosteric effects that increased doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol, whereas 5 to 10 µM paclitaxel decreased doxorubicinol formation. The closely related taxane docetaxel caused similar effects. Basal or taxane-stimulated doxorubicinol formation was blunted by 2,7-difluorospirofluorene-9,5'-imidazolidine-2',4'-dione (AL1576), a specific inhibitor of aldehyde reductases. Doxorubicinol was measured also in the cytosol of human myocardial strips incubated in plasma and exposed to doxorubicin in the absence or presence of paclitaxel or docetaxel and their clinical vehicles Cremophor EL or polysorbate 80. Low concentrations of taxanes stimulated doxorubicinol formation, whereas high concentrations decreased it. Doxorubicinol formation reached its maximum on adding plasma with 6 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel; this corresponded to the partitioning of 1.5 to 2.5 µM taxanes in the cytosol of the strips. Taxane-stimulated doxorubicinol formation was not mediated by vehicles, nor was it caused by increased doxorubicin uptake or de novo protein synthesis; however, doxorubicinol formation was blunted by AL1576. These results show that allosteric interactions with cytoplasmic aldehyde reductases enable paclitaxel or docetaxel to stimulate doxorubicinol formation in human heart. This information serves metabolic insights into the risk of cardiotoxicity induced by doxorubicin-taxane therapies.

Pharmacokinetic interactions between paclitaxel and doxorubicin or doxorubicinol were attributed to the formulation of paclitaxel in Cremophor EL, a nonionic surfactant that inhibits gp170 and related mechanisms of anthracycline elimination through the bile (Gianni et al., 1997). Therefore, limiting the cumulative dose of doxorubicin to 360 mg/m² and separating doxorubicin and paclitaxel by longer than 4 h were identified as possible measures for preventing excess cardiac toxicity induced by doxorubicinpaclitaxel schedules (Perotti et al., 2003). Replacing paclitaxel with its closely related analog docetaxel was also considered a valuable option; in fact, docetaxel neither interfered with anthracycline elimination (D'Incalci et al., 1998) nor caused more cardiotoxicity when administered 1 h after bolus doxorubicin (Nabholtz et al., 2003), likely because of its formulation in polysorbate 80 instead of Cremophor EL.

Previously, we reported that doxorubicin and taxanes also might interact on metabolic grounds. We showed that both paclitaxel and docetaxel stimulated an NADPH-dependent reduction of doxorubicin to doxorubicinol in isolated human cardiac cytosol (Minotti et al., 2001b), a translational model that obviated potential pitfalls caused by the different enzymology of anthracycline secondary alcohol metabolite formation in laboratory animals versus humans (Maessen et al., 1987; Behnia and Boroujerdi, 1999; Minotti et al., 2004; Salvatorelli et al., 2006). The effect of paclitaxel or docetaxel did not require Cremophor EL or polysorbate 80, nor was it observed on replacing the taxanes with the structurally unrelated tubulin-active Vinca alkaloid vinorelbine; this showed that stimulation of doxorubicinol formation was inherently related to the taxoid backbone of paclitaxel or docetaxel (Minotti et al., 2001b).

These results changed the mechanistic appraisal of the safety or toxicity of doxorubicin-taxane therapies. On the one hand, the ability of paclitaxel to stimulate doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol was considered more relevant to cardiotoxicity than was its ability to increase doxorubicinol levels in plasma; in fact, a polar metabolite like doxorubicinol would take too long to partition from plasma and reach cardiac levels high enough to induce toxicity (Olson and Mushlin, 1990; Minotti et al., 2001b). On the other hand, the observation that docetaxel also increased doxorubicinol formation raised the possibility that the cardiac safety of doxorubicindocetaxel therapies could have been determined primarily by dose-related factors, e.g., a median cumulative dose of only 378 mg of doxorubicin/m² (Nabholtz et al., 2003).

Interestingly, low concentrations of paclitaxel or docetaxel stimulated doxorubicinol formation, but higher concentrations decreased it back to control levels (Minotti et al., 2001b). This pattern of modulation was suggestive of allosteric interactions of paclitaxel or docetaxel with the reductases that converted doxorubicin to doxorubicinol, but limitations in myocardial sample availability did not allow further characterization of this putative mechanism. Moreover, studies with isolated cytosol could not explore other important determinants of the metabolic interactions between doxorubicin and taxanes, e.g., the effects of plasma proteins and vehicles on the partitioning of these drugs in the heart. Therefore, we extended our studies with human heart cytosol and exploited also a novel model in which whole human myocardium was incubated in plasma and exposed to doxorubicin, taxanes, and their vehicles.

	Materials and Methods

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Chemicals. We used doxorubicin [7-(3-amino-2,3,6-trideoxy--L-lyxo-hexopyranosyl)doxorubicinone] and doxorubicinol [7-(3-amino-2,3,6-trideoxy--L-lyxo-hexopyranosyl)-13-dihydroxydoxorubicinone] (Nerviano Medical Sciences, Milan, Italy); lyophilized paclitaxel [5,20-epoxy-1,2,4,7,10,13-hexahydroxytax-11-en-9-one, 4,10-diacetate, 2-benzoate, 13-ester, with (2R,3S)-N-benzoyl-3-phenylisoserine] (Bristol Myers Squibb, Wallingford, CT); lyophilized docetaxel [(2R,3S)-N-carboxy-3-phenylisoserine, N-tert-butyl ester, 13-ester, with 5-20-epoxy-1,2,4,7,10,13-hexahydroxytax-11-en-9-one, 4-acetate, 2-benzoate, trihydrate] (Rhône-Poulenc Rorer, Vitry-sur-Seine Cedex, France); ethyl-1-benzyl-3-hydroxy-2(5H)-oxopyrrole-4-carboxylate (EBPC) (Tocris Biosciences, Bristol, UK); tolrestat (N-[6-methoxy-5-trifluoromethyl-1-naphtyl(thiocarbonyl)]-N-methylglycine) (Wyeth Ayerst Research, Princeton, NJ); and 2,7-difluorospirofluorene-9,5'-imidazolidine-2',4'-dione (AL1576) (Alcon Laboratories, Fort Worth, TX). Ethanol (formal concentration 17.1 mM) was a product of Carlo Erba (Milan, Italy). Cremophor EL (polyoxyethyleneglycerol triricinoleate 35), polysorbate 80 (polyoxyethylenesorbitan-20-mono-oleate), quercetin (3,3',4',5,7-pentahydroxyflavone), and all other chemicals were obtained from Sigma Aldrich (Milan, Italy).

Human Myocardial Samples. Small myocardial samples were obtained from 67 male and female patients (62 ± 4 years) undergoing aortocoronary bypass grafting. All the specimens were derived from the lateral aspect of excluded right atrium and were routinely disposed of by the surgeons during cannulation procedures for cardiopulmonary bypass; therefore, the patients were not subjected to any unjustified loss of tissue. Sampling procedures were in compliance with guidelines of the Institutional Ethical Committee, and written informed consent was obtained from all the patients.

Reconstitution of Doxorubicin Metabolism in Human Heart Cytosol. Pools of 10 to 15 myocardial specimens were processed for cytosol preparation by homogenization, ultracentrifugation, and 65% ammonium sulfate precipitation of 105,000g supernatants (Minotti et al., 2001b). Next, cytosolic proteins were treated with 100 mM DTT, pH 8.9, and gel-filtered on homemade Sepharose 6B minicolumns to induce disassembly of cytoplasmic Fe-S clusters that otherwise oxidized doxorubicinol back to doxorubicin and limited metabolite accumulation and kinetic measurements (Minotti et al., 2001b; Salvatorelli et al., 2006). Doxorubicin metabolism was reconstituted for 4 h in 0.25-ml incubations that contained cytosol (0.15 mg protein), NADPH (0.25 mM), and 50 µM doxorubicin in 0.3 M NaCl, pH 7.0, 37°C. Ethanol-dissolved taxanes or inhibitors were included as appropriate, and control incubations contained an equivalent volume of ethanol (5 µl, formally corresponding to 0.34 mM ethanol); under such defined conditions ethanol never precipitated cytosolic proteins.

Kinetics of Basal or Taxane-Modulated Doxorubicinol Formation. In the experiments for determination of V_max, doxorubicinol was measured over the linear phase of the reaction (usually 30-60 min); in the experiments for determination of K_m, doxorubicin was used over a 10 to 500 µM range, and the reaction was stopped after 4 h. The experimental data were analyzed according to the following reactions:

(1)

(2)

where E is the cytoplasmic reductase, S is the substrate, TX is the taxane, and P is the product of the reaction. The taxane acted as an effector, whose binding and dissociation rates from E were considered much faster than those of S. This sequence of reactions incorporated two basic linkages: the former implicated a purely allosteric interaction of the taxane with a pertinent site of the reductase(s), whereas the latter was of a competitive nature and assumed that the taxane bound to the same reductase site as did the substrate; therefore, the binding of either ligand to this site excluded the binding of the other. Under these conditions, the observed V_max/K_m values (R)of the reductase(s)/substrate interaction were analyzed by the following linkage equation:

(3)

where Z is the binding partition function of the taxane {equal to [1+ (TX/¹K) + (TX/²K) + (TX²/¹K ²K)]}; R^o is the V_max/K_m value measured experimentally in the absence of the taxane; R¹ is the V_max/K_m for the reductase ligated by the taxane at the regulatory/allosteric site; ¹K and ²K are the equilibrium dissociation constants of the taxane binding to the regulatory or catalytic site of the reductase(s), respectively. In this model, no linkage was assumed to exist between the binding of the taxane to the regulatory/allosteric and catalytic domains of the reductase(s).

Doxorubicin Metabolism in Whole Human Myocardium. We used an experimental model recently developed and validated in our laboratory. In brief, thin strips (2 x 10 mm, <0.1 g) were carefully dissected from the ex vivo myocardial samples, washed extensively in ice-cold 0.3 M NaCl, and incubated in 2 ml of fresh human plasma with 1 or 10 µM doxorubicin added (Salvatorelli et al., 2006). Where indicated, paclitaxel or docetaxel was also included, along with proper amounts of ethanol and Cremophor EL or polysorbate 80, as specified under Results and the figure legends and tables. After 4-h incubation at 37°C in a Dubnoff metabolic bath under an air atmosphere, the strips were washed in ice-cold 0.3 M NaCl, homogenized in a minimum volume of the same medium, and centrifuged for 90 min at 105,000g to separate soluble and whole membrane fractions.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Assays for Anthracyclines, Taxanes, and AL1576. The isolated cytosol and the soluble or membrane fractions of myocardial strips were extracted with a 4-fold volume of (1:1) CHCl₃/CH₃OH, and the organic phases were combined to obtain a total extract. In previous studies, this procedure proved convenient to extract doxorubicin and doxorubicinol from rat heart (Minotti et al., 2001a) and subcellular fractions of human myocardium (Minotti et al., 2001b; Salvatorelli et al., 2006). Twenty microliters of total organic extracts was assayed for anthracyclines, taxanes, and the enzyme inhibitor AL1576 by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in a Hewlett-Packard 1100 system (Palo Alto, CA). The samples were loaded onto a Nucleosil C-18 column (100 x 4.6 mm, 5 µm; Supelco, Bellafonte, PA), operated at 25°C, and eluted with a 15-min linear gradient from 50 mM NaH₂PO₄ to CH₃CN/25 mM NaH₂PO₄ at the flow rate of 1 ml/min. Retention times were 11.7 min (doxorubicinol), 12.4 min (doxorubicin), 14.1 min (AL1576), 18.9 min (docetaxel), and 20.6 min (paclitaxel). Anthracyclines were detected fluorimetrically (excitation at 480 nm, emission at 560 nm) (Salvatorelli et al., 2006); paclitaxel and docetaxel were detected by UV absorbance (_max = 230 nm) (Grasselli et al., 2001); and AL1576 was detected by UV absorbance (_max = 270 nm) and fluorescence (excitation at 280 nm, emission at 333 nm) (Barski et al., 1995). All the analytes were quantified against standard curves obtained after comparable extractive and chromatographic procedures. Within-day and between-day coefficients of variation were 2 and 7%, respectively. Moreover, control experiments showed that taxanes or inhibitors did not interfere with the extraction and HPLC assay of doxorubicin or doxorubicinol.

Other Assays and Conditions. Proteins were measured by the bicinchoninic acid method. Myocardial release of myoglobin, troponin T, and creatine kinase isoenzyme MB was determined by an electrochemiluminescence immunoassay with an Elecsys 2010 Analyzer (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany), according to manufacturer's instructions. Unless otherwise indicated, all the values were means ± S.E. of at least three experiments. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance, followed by Bonferroni's test for multiple comparisons; where indicated, unpaired Student's t test was also applied. Differences were considered significant when p < 0.05. Other details are given under Results and in figure legends and tables.

	Results

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Doxorubicinol Formation in Human Heart Cytosol. Doxorubicin is composed of a tetracyclic ring with adjacent quinone-hydroquinone moieties, a short side chain with a carbonyl group at C-13, and an aminosugar called daunosamine. Doxorubicinol is formed through a two-electron reduction of the side chain carbonyl group (Fig. 1A). In this study, the reconstitution of doxorubicin and NADPH in human cardiac cytosol caused the formation of 1.5 ± 0.2 nmol of doxorubicinol/mg protein/4 h (range 1.1-2.4, n = 8).

View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol: inhibitor studies. A, doxorubicinol is formed after a two-electron reduction of the side chain carbonyl group of doxorubicin. B, the incubations (0.25-ml final volume) contained human heart cytosol (0.15 mg protein), doxorubicin (50 µM), NADPH (0.25 mM), and increasing concentrations of inhibitors specific to aldose reductases (EBPC), carbonyl reductases (quercetin), aldehyde and aldose reductases (tolrestat), and aldehyde reductases (AL1576). Doxorubicinol was measured after 4 h, as described under Materials and Methods. All of the values were means of two experiments and were expressed as percentages of doxorubicinol formation in the absence of inhibitors (nmol/mg protein/4 h: 1.5 ± 0.15, range 1.1-2.4, n = 8).

Taxane Modulation of Doxorubicinol Formation in Human Heart Cytosol. Both paclitaxel and docetaxel influenced doxorubicinol formation in a bell-shaped concentration-dependent manner, i.e., low concentrations of paclitaxel or docetaxel increased doxorubicinol formation, whereas higher concentrations decreased it back to control levels. The only difference between paclitaxel and docetaxel pertained to the range of concentrations within which they could stimulate doxorubicinol formation; paclitaxel began increasing doxorubicinol at 0.25 µM and caused a significant stimulation at 0.5 to 2.5 µM, whereas docetaxel increased doxorubicinol and caused a significant stimulation at 1 to 2.5 µM (Fig. 2, A and B). Paclitaxel and docetaxel were probed in cytosol samples that exhibited slightly different basal levels of doxorubicinol formation (nmol/mg protein/4 h: 1.4 ± 0.2 in the experiments with paclitaxel versus 1.8 ± 0.2 in the experiments with docetaxel, n = 3, overall range 1.1-2.1) (see also Fig. 2, A and B). It follows that the absolute levels of taxane-stimulated doxorubicinol formation were also different, but normalizing them to basal doxorubicinol showed that both paclitaxel and docetaxel caused a 54 to 59% maximum stimulation at 1 µM.

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Effects of paclitaxel or docetaxel on doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol. The incubations (0.25-ml final volume) contained human heart cytosol (0.15 mg protein), doxorubicin (50 µM), NADPH (0.25 mM), and increasing concentrations of ethanol-dissolved paclitaxel (A) or docetaxel (B). Doxorubicinol was measured after 4 h, as described under Materials and Methods. Values were means ± S.E. of three experiments. The asterisks indicate p < 0.05 for 0.5 to 2.5 µM paclitaxel or p < 0.05 for 1 to 2.5 µM docetaxel versus taxane-free controls.

We determined the effects of enzyme inhibitors on taxane-stimulated doxorubicinol formation; paclitaxel and docetaxel were used 1 µM, whereas inhibitors were used 5 µM. Under such defined conditions, only AL1576 caused a significant inhibition of doxorubicinol formation, which decreased to 50% of its level of formation in taxane-free incubations (Fig. 3A); moreover, the efficacy with which AL1576 inhibited doxorubicinol formation did not change on varying paclitaxel or docetaxel over a 0.25 to 10 µM range (Fig. 3B). These results showed that aldehyde reductases catalyzed both basal and taxane-stimulated doxorubicinol formation and that AL1576 potently abrogated the effects of taxanes.

View larger version (20K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Effects of paclitaxel or docetaxel on doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol: inhibitor studies. The incubations (0.25-ml final volume) contained human heart cytosol (0.15 mg of protein), doxorubicin (50 µM), and NADPH (0.25 mM). A, inhibitors were used 5 µM, and taxanes were added 1 µM. B, AL1576 was used 5 µM, and taxanes were added 0.25 to 10 µM. Doxorubicinol was measured after 4 h, as described under Materials and Methods. Values were means of two experiments with 90% agreement and were expressed as percentages of doxorubicinol formation in paclitaxel- or docetaxel-free incubations (range 1.2-2.3 nmol/mg protein).

These results showed that low concentrations of paclitaxel or docetaxel stimulated doxorubicinol formation mainly by increasing the V_max value, whereas higher concentrations inhibited doxorubicinol formation mainly by increasing the K_m value. One such pattern could only be explained by assuming that taxanes bound with different affinities to at least two sites on cytoplasmic reductases (e.g., a regulatory/allosteric site and another site that was identical with the catalytic site or part of it). Because of limitations in sample availability, the effects of paclitaxel or docetaxel on the Michaelis constants of doxorubicin-reductase reactions were measured only under the experimental conditions reported in Table 1 (0, 1, and 10 µM taxane). This approach and the limited pool of available data did not allow an iterative fitting of the experimental results, but a virtual fitting procedure could be adopted (see equations 1, 2, 3 under Materials and Methods). By fixing the V_max/K_m value measured experimentally in the absence of taxanes (R⁰), and by allowing the equilibrium dissociation constant of the taxane binding to the regulatory site (¹K) to float between 0.2 and 1.5 µM taxanes, we could approximate the V_max/K_m value for the reductase(s) ligated by taxanes at the regulatory site (R¹) and the equilibrium dissociation constant of the taxane binding to the catalytic site (²K). In the case of paclitaxel, the fitting procedure determined that ²K was 5-fold ¹K (6.5 versus 1.2 µM), whereas R¹ was 40-fold R⁰ and 8-fold the V_max/K_m value measured experimentally with 1 µM paclitaxel (82 x 10^-4 versus 1.8 x 10^-4 or 9.5 x 10^-4, respectively) [ml/(mg protein/min)]. By fitting the experimental data to R⁰, R¹, ¹K, and ²K, the V_max/K_m values over 0.25 to 10 µM paclitaxel were eventually derived. As shown in Fig. 4, the fitting followed the usual bell-shaped concentration-dependent pattern, with an apparent peak of the V_max/K_m value at 0.5 µM paclitaxel. These analyses suggested that low concentrations of taxanes increased the catalytic competence of doxorubicin reductases by binding with high affinity to a regulatory/allosteric site; however, taxanes also decreased the catalytic competence of the reductases by binding with low affinity to the catalytic site, eventually competing with doxorubicin. The kinetic model, and the marked difference between R¹ and the V_max/K_m value determined in incubations with 1 µM paclitaxel, outlined that R¹ could not be measured experimentally because a parallel binding of the taxane to the catalytic site impeded the achievement of the reductases fully ligated at the regulatory site.

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Virtual fitting of the Vmax/Km values of doxorubicinol formation in human heart cytosol exposed to 0.25 to 10 µM paclitaxel. The dotted line derived by fitting the experimental data to the following parameters: R0 = 1.8 x 10-4 [ml/(mg protein/min)], R1 = 82 x 10-4 [ml/(mg protein/min)], 1K = 1.2 µM, 2K = 6.5 µM. R0, Vmax/Km value measured experimentally in the absence of paclitaxel; R1, Vmax/Km values for cytoplasmic reductase(s) ligated by paclitaxel at the regulatory site; and 1K and 2K, equilibrium dissociation constants of the paclitaxel binding to the regulatory or catalytic sites of cytoplasmic reductase(s), respectively. See also under Materials and Methods and Results for explanation.

Doxorubicinol Formation in Human Myocardial Strips. We assessed anthracycline distribution and metabolization in human myocardial strips incubated in plasma and exposed to 1 or 10 µM doxorubicin for 4 h. Under such defined conditions, the strips did not release myoglobin, troponin T, or creatine kinase-MB isozyme (not shown). This showed that the cardiac tissue had not been exposed to an acute damage that could have influenced the mechanisms and levels of formation of anthracycline metabolites (Gewirtz, 1999; Salvatorelli et al., 2006). Doxorubicin distributed to the soluble or membrane fractions of the strips in a concentration-dependent manner (Fig. 5A). The total levels of doxorubicin recovered in the strips (soluble + membrane fraction) formally exceeded those added in plasma (1.8 ± 0.2 or 14.4 ± 3 µM at 1 or 10 µM doxorubicin, respectively, n = 7-12). This finding was consistent with the known ability of the cardiac tissue to concentrate anthracyclines, but the accumulation factors were significantly lower than those determined by others when studying isolated rabbit heart in common laboratory buffers (factors 3) (Olson et al., 1988). This denoted the ability of plasma proteins to bind doxorubicin and limit its tissue partitioning. Doxorubicinol was found in the soluble fraction of myocardial strips exposed to 10 µM doxorubicin (Fig. 5B), and its levels correlated with those of doxorubicin in that fraction (r² = 0.48, p = 0.018). The apparent lack of doxorubicinol formation in the membrane fraction of the strips could not be attributed to experimental artifacts, e.g., an inadequate extraction of doxorubicinol from that fraction; in fact, titrating membrane fractions from control strips with known amounts of doxorubicin or doxorubicinol showed that the extraction method adopted in this study (4-fold volume of 1:1 CHCl₃/CH₃OH) gave a near-to-complete recovery of either anthracycline molecule (97 ± 1 versus 95 ± 2%, n = 6-9). Thus, doxorubicinol was formed primarily by cytoplasmic reductases.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Doxorubicin distribution and doxorubicinol formation in human myocardial strips. Human myocardial strips were incubated in plasma that contained 1 or 10 µM doxorubicin. After 4 h, the strips were assayed for doxorubicin or doxorubicinol in soluble or membrane fractions as described under Materials and Methods.

Taxane Modulation of Doxorubicinol Formation in Human Myocardial Strips. We characterized the effects of taxanes and their vehicles on doxorubicinol formation in human myocardial strips exposed to 10 µM doxorubicin. Paclitaxel was used 2 and 6 or 15 µM, whereas Cremophor EL was used 10 µl/ml. Ethanol (10 µl/ml) was also included to reproduce its 1:1 ratio to Cremophor EL in the complete cosolvent system of the clinical formulation of paclitaxel. Docetaxel was similarly used 2 and 6 or 15 µM, along with a clinically relevant concentration of 1 µl of polysorbate 80/ml and an equivalent volume of ethanol (Loos et al., 2003). Under such defined conditions, paclitaxel and docetaxel distributed to the soluble fraction of the strips in a concentration-dependent manner (Table 2). Plotting the levels of taxanes in the soluble fraction versus those of doxorubicin or doxorubicinol showed that paclitaxel and docetaxel did not modify the steady-state levels of doxorubicin (Fig. 6A) but modulated its conversion to doxorubicinol in a concentration-dependent bell-shaped manner (Fig. 6B). Maximal stimulation of doxorubicinol formation (56 ± 6 or 74 ± 22%) occurred on adding plasma with 6 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel, respectively; under the latter condition, the levels of paclitaxel or docetaxel in the soluble fraction of the strips averaged 2.4 ± 0.5 or 1.5 ± 0.3 µM, respectively (n = 3-6, p > 0.05 for paclitaxel versus docetaxel), similar to the taxane levels that stimulated doxorubicinol formation in the isolated human heart cytosol (cf. Fig. 2, A and B). Further experiments showed that 1) neither ethanol nor ethanol/Cremophor EL or ethanol-polysorbate 80 increased doxorubicinol formation; 2) an 100 µM bolus of cycloheximide, potent inhibitor of protein synthesis (Engel et al., 1999), did not prevent the stimulation of doxorubicinol formation induced by 6 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel formulated in their cosolvent systems; and 3) the levels of paclitaxel or docetaxel in the soluble fraction of the strips always proved similar to those that stimulated doxorubicinol formation in the isolated cytosol (Tables 3 and 4). Adding plasma with 2 to 15 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel caused a concentration-dependent distribution of either taxane also to the membrane fraction of the strips, but this was not accompanied by the formation of measurable doxorubicinol in that fraction (not shown).

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6. Effects of increasing concentrations of paclitaxel or docetaxel on the levels of doxorubicin or doxorubicinol in the soluble fraction of human myocardial strips. Human myocardial strips were incubated in plasma that contained 10 µM doxorubicin and 2, 6, or 15 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel formulated in cosolvent systems (10 µl of ethanol/ml + 10 µl Cremophor EL/ml or 1 µl of ethanol/ml + 1 µl of polysorbate 80/ml, respectively). After 4 h, the strips were assayed for taxanes and doxorubicin or doxorubicinol in the soluble fraction. A, the relation between the individual levels of taxanes and those of doxorubicin. Values were expressed as percentages of doxorubicin content in strips exposed to ethanol/Cremophor EL without paclitaxel (µM: 4.2 ± 0.9, range 0.9-10, n = 12) or ethanol/polysorbate without docetaxel (µM: 3.8 ± 0.7, range 1-8, n = 9). B, the relation between the individual levels of taxanes and doxorubicinol. Values were expressed as percentages of doxorubicinol content in strips exposed to ethanol/Cremophor EL without paclitaxel (µM: 0.031 ± 0.05, range 0.01-0.06, n = 12) or ethanol/polysorbate without docetaxel (µM: 0.037 ± 0.01, range 0.01-0.08, n = 9).

We next determined whether AL1576 inhibited doxorubicinol formation in myocardial strips exposed to 6 µM taxanes and their cosolvent systems. AL1576 distributed to the soluble fraction of these strips in a concentration-dependent manner (Table 5), thus diminishing and eventually abolishing doxorubicinol formation (Fig. 7, A and B). The effect of AL1576 could not be attributed to an impaired partitioning of taxanes or doxorubicin in the soluble fraction of the strips; AL1576 tended to increase the levels of doxorubicin in that fraction, likely because its high affinity for plasma proteins caused the displacement of some doxorubicin and increased the fraction of unbound anthracycline that diffused in the cardiac tissue (McNamara et al., 1988) (see also Fig. 7, A and B). Plotting the levels of AL1576 versus doxorubicinol also showed that 6 µM AL1576 blunted the stimulation induced by paclitaxel or docetaxel and diminished doxorubicinol down to 50% of its unstimulated level (i.e., 50% of the level measured in strips exposed to ethanol and vehicles but not taxanes) (Fig. 8). Therefore, AL1576 acted at the same concentration level characterized with isolated cytosol samples (cf. Figs. 1 and 3, A and B).

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 7. Concentration-dependent effects of AL1576 on the levels of taxanes, doxorubicin, and doxorubicinol in the soluble fraction of human myocardial strips. Human myocardial strips were incubated in plasma that contained 10 µM doxorubicin and 6 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel formulated in ethanol/Cremophor EL or ethanol/polysorbate 80, as described in the legends to Tables 3 and 4. AL1576 was also added at 1, 10, and 100 or 500 µM. After 4 h, the strips were assayed for taxanes and anthracyclines in the soluble fraction. A, the effects of AL1576 on the levels of paclitaxel and doxorubicin or doxorubicinol. Values were expressed as percentages of the corresponding levels in the soluble fraction of strips exposed to ethanol/Cremophor EL/paclitaxel without AL1576 (n = 3, µM: doxorubicin, 3 ± 0.2; paclitaxel, 3.1 ± 0.1; doxorubicinol, 0.046 ± 0.01). B, the effects of AL1576 on the levels of docetaxel and doxorubicin or doxorubicinol. Values were expressed as percentages of the corresponding levels in the soluble fractions of strips exposed to ethanol/polysorbate 80/docetaxel without AL1576 (n = 3, µM: doxorubicin, 4.1 ± 0.7; docetaxel, 1.5 ± 0.3; doxorubicinol, 0.1 ± 0.01).

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 8. Inhibition of doxorubicinol formation in myocardial strips exposed to doxorubicin, taxanes, and increasing concentrations of AL1576: point-by-point dependence on the levels of AL1576 in the soluble fraction. Human myocardial strips were exposed to 10 µM doxorubicin and 6 µM paclitaxel or docetaxel formulated in ethanol/Cremophor EL or ethanol/polysorbate 80; AL1576 was used 1, 10, 100, and 500 µM (three experiments for each AL1576 concentration). After 4 h, the soluble fraction was assayed for doxorubicinol and AL1576, as described under Materials and Methods. Doxorubicinol levels were expressed as percentages relative to strips exposed to doxorubicin and ethanol/Cremophor EL or ethanol/polysorbate 80 but not taxanes or AL1576 (same ranges as those reported in the legend for Fig. 6).

Collectively, these experiments showed that neither vehicles nor modifications of doxorubicin distribution contributed to stimulating doxorubicinol formation in myocardial strips exposed to taxanes. Inhibition of doxorubicinol formation by AL1576 but not cycloheximide pointed to direct interactions of paclitaxel or docetaxel with cytoplasmic aldehyde reductases.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity is determined by the cardiac levels and reactivity of doxorubicin and its metabolites. In this regard, several lines of evidence indicate that doxorubicinol is 20 to 40 times more potent than doxorubicin at inhibiting calcium-handling proteins and related contractile events (Olson et al., 1988; Olson and Mushlin, 1990; Minotti et al., 2001a), shows a higher potency in suppressing the expression of the ryanodine receptor 2 (Gambliel et al., 2002), exhibits a unique reactivity toward the Fe-S cluster of cytoplasmic aconitase, and disrupts its functions in iron and energy metabolism (Minotti et al., 2004). Post-mortem studies of patients deceased long after anthracycline administration also showed that the cardiac levels of doxorubicinol equaled those of doxorubicin and exceeded those of anthracycline aglycones; this showed that a polar metabolite like doxorubicinol exhibited a reduced cardiac clearance as compared with doxorubicin or apolar metabolites (Stewart et al., 1993). Therefore, several factors allow doxorubicinol to accumulate in the heart and play an important role in cardiotoxicity, possibly amplifying the damage induced by other doxorubicin-derived species (e.g., free radicals). Thus, anomalous increases of doxorubicinol formation in the heart were expected to accelerate the progression of cardiotoxicity and cause the development of heart failure at lower than expected cumulative doses of doxorubicin (Minotti et al., 2004).

We extended our previous work with isolated human heart cytosol and showed that the bell-shaped concentration-dependent effects of paclitaxel on doxorubicinol formation were accompanied by consistent modifications of the V_max/K_m values with which the cytosol metabolized doxorubicin, showing that paclitaxel acted as an allosteric modulator of anthracycline reductases. These changes were not accompanied by formation of paclitaxel metabolites (not shown), indicating that paclitaxel acted through direct interactions with cytoplasmic reductases. Virtual fitting of the experimental data also suggested that low concentrations of paclitaxel stimulated DOXOL formation by binding with high affinity to a regulatory site, whereas higher concentrations inhibited doxorubicinol formation by binding with low affinity to the catalytic site, eventually competing with the substrate. Here it is worth noting that doxorubicinol was formed primarily by AL1576-inhibitable aldehyde reductases, a subfamily of aldo-keto reductases whose structural and functional features may well fit in the aforesaid mechanisms of modulation. For example, the C-terminal loop of these reductases accommodates the cofactor binding site, participates in the formation of the active site, and contributes to determining substrate specificity, with all such domains and functions being exposed to potential modulators (Barski et al., 1995, 1996). We also showed that the efficacy with which AL1576 inhibited doxorubicinol formation was independent of the absence or presence of increasing concentrations of paclitaxel (cf. Fig. 3). This latter finding would be consistent with the mode of action of AL1576, which inhibits aldehyde reductases by tightly binding to and blocking dissociation of an enzyme-NADP⁺ complex (Barski et al., 1995). Therefore, AL1576 should displace paclitaxel from the reductases or induce conformational changes that prevented its association with regulatory or catalytic sites, eventually nullifying the effects of paclitaxel on doxorubicinol formation.

Plasma proteins bind doxorubicin and paclitaxel, limiting their diffusion in tissues (Finlay and Baguley, 2000; ten Tije et al., 2003); moreover, Cremophor EL forms micelles that entrap doxorubicin or paclitaxel and may further attenuate their diffusion in tissues (Kessel, 1992; Ng et al., 2004). Therefore, a major effort was paid to measuring doxorubicinol in human myocardial strips incubated in plasma and exposed to doxorubicin in the absence or presence of paclitaxel and its ethanol-Cremophor EL cosolvent system. Under such defined conditions, doxorubicin still diffused in myocardial strips and converted to doxorubicinol. The basal levels of doxorubicinol formation were 3- or 15-fold lower than the median or highest concentration of doxorubicinol in postmortem cardiac samples (0.06 versus 0.17 or 0.9 µM, respectively) (cf. Table 3 and work by Stewart et al., 1993). This marked difference may be explained by considering that post-mortem samples derived from patients exposed to cumulative doses of doxorubicin, whereas our experimental model characterizes doxorubicinol formation that occurs in response to a single dose of doxorubicin. It is noteworthy that paclitaxel also diffused in myocardial strips and modulated doxorubicinol formation in a concentration-dependent bell-shaped manner that was not mediated by its vehicle nor by modifications of doxorubicin uptake or de novo protein synthesis. Furthermore, AL1576 inhibited paclitaxel-stimulated doxorubicinol formation without affecting doxorubicin or paclitaxel uptake, and the concentration of AL1576 that decreased doxorubicinol to 50% of its unstimulated level was the same as that characterized in isolated cytosol samples.

A pharmacologically relevant issue pertains to the plasma levels of doxorubicin and paclitaxel formulations that caused an increased formation of doxorubicinol in myocardial strips. Doxorubicin and paclitaxel were 10 and 6 µM, similar to their respective C_max in patients receiving a 5-min bolus of 60 mg of doxorubicin/m² followed 15 min later by a 3-h infusion of 200 mg of paclitaxel/m² (Gianni et al., 1997); moreover, Cremophor EL was 10 µl/ml, as was its C_max in patients receiving a similar paclitaxel infusion (Sparreboom et al., 1998). Therefore, paclitaxel-induced doxorubicinol formation occurred at clinically relevant drug levels, especially if one appreciates that cardiotoxicity also correlates with the C_max of doxorubicin (Danesi et al., 2002). A related important finding was that adding plasma with 6 µM paclitaxel caused the formation of myocardial cytoplasmic levels of paclitaxel similar to those that stimulated doxorubicinol formation in the isolated cytosol. These results support the concept that an almost concomitant administration of doxorubicin and paclitaxel would be accompanied by an increased formation of doxorubicinol in the heart, thus explaining how this treatment induced cardiomyopathy at lower than expected cumulative doses of doxorubicin.

Docetaxel did not aggravate doxorubicin-related cardiotoxicity in women with metastatic breast cancer, but our studies with human heart cytosol confirm that it modulates doxorubicinol formation through the same mechanisms described with paclitaxel. Docetaxel proved similar to paclitaxel also when delivered to myocardial strips incubated in plasma in the presence of its vehicle polysorbate 80, which was included to account for its possible interferences with the ratio of free to protein-bound docetaxel (Loos et al., 2003). These observations support the concept that clinically relevant metabolic interactions between doxorubicin and docetaxel might have been precluded by a cautionary reduction of the cumulative dose of doxorubicin, resulting in a limited formation of doxorubicinol in the heart. Other dose-related factors also may be considered. Stimulation of doxorubicinol formation occurred on adding plasma with 10 µM doxorubicin and 6 µM docetaxel, similar to the experiments with doxorubicin and paclitaxel. In patients treated with doxorubicin followed by docetaxel, the C_max of doxorubicin might nonetheless be lower than 10 µM because doxorubicin was used 50 mg/m² over 15 min instead of 60 mg/m² over 5 min (Nabholtz et al., 2003). Likewise, in patients receiving doxorubicindocetaxel treatments, docetaxel was used 75 mg/m² over 1-h infusion (Nabholtz et al., 2003), a schedule that per se would give a C_max of only 2 µM (Baker et al., 2004). Therefore, one might conclude that the cardiac safety of doxorubicindocetaxel was determined not only by the lower cumulative dose of doxorubicin administered to the patients but also by the lower C_max attained by doxorubicin and docetaxel at each doxorubicindocetaxel cycle. Further complexity is introduced by possible pharmacokinetic interactions between doxorubicin and docetaxel. We mentioned that in women with metastatic breast cancer docetaxel did not interfere with doxorubicin elimination, but the same studies showed that the AUC of docetaxel was almost doubled by the previous infusion of doxorubicin (D'Incalci et al., 1998); in such a case, the cardiac exposure to docetaxel might be higher than generally assumed, and cardiotoxicity would be limited primarily by the pharmacokinetics and cumulative doses of doxorubicin. In assessing the relative importance of all such factors, it may be worth considering recent studies in which four cycles of doxorubicinpaclitaxel or six cycles of doxorubicindocetaxel were used as primary or adjuvant treatments of operable breast cancer. In these studies, the cumulative dose of doxorubicin was higher with docetaxel than paclitaxel (300 versus 240 mg/m² in >90% of evaluable patients), and comparisons with taxane-free anthracycline regimens showed that only doxorubicindocetaxel caused a trend toward more cardiotoxicity (Nabholtz et al., 2002; Gianni et al., 2005; Martin et al., 2005). Thus, the safety or toxicity of doxorubicindocetaxel versus doxorubicinpaclitaxel seems to be determined primarily by the cumulative dose of doxorubicin associated with the taxane.

In summary, both paclitaxel and docetaxel act as allosteric modulators of cytoplasmic reductases and stimulate doxorubicinol formation in human myocardium. These observations offer novel insights into the cardiotoxicity induced by doxorubicinpaclitaxel schedules, and raise caution against combining docetaxel with cumulative doses of doxorubicin higher than those adopted in available clinical studies. The translational models of human heart described in this study will prove useful in screening the safety of any new anthracycline-taxane regimen.

	Acknowledgements

 
We thank Dr. Raimondo De Cristofaro (Institute of Internal Medicine and Geriatrics, Catholic University School of Medicine, Rome, Italy) for assistance in data analysis.

	Footnotes

 
This work was supported by Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro and Ministero dell' Universita' e Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica (MIUR) (Cofin 2004, FIRB RBNE 014HJ3-002, and Center of Excellence on Aging at the University of Chieti) (to G.M.).

E.S. and P.M. contributed equally to this work.

In the experiments with myocardial strips, all of the values (nanomoles/gram of tissue) were normalized to micromolar equivalents on considering that cardiac tissue has a density very similar to that of water (1 g/ml) (Mushlin et al., 1993).

Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at http://jpet.aspetjournals.org.

doi:10.1124/jpet.106.103846.

ABBREVIATIONS: AUC, plasma area under the curve; EBPC, ethyl-1-benzyl-3-hydroxy-2(5H)-oxopyrrole-4-carboxylate; AL1576, 2,7-difluorospirofluorene-9,5'-imidazolidine-2',4'-dione; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography.

Address correspondence to: Dr. Giorgio Minotti, Department of Drug Sciences and Center of Excellence on Aging, G. d'Annunzio University School of Medicine, Via dei Vestini, 66013 Chieti, Italy. E-mail: gminotti{at}unich.it

	References

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 

Baker SD, Zhao M, Lee CKK, Verweij J, Zabelina Y, Brahmer JR, Wolff AC, Sparreboom A, and Carducci MA (2004) Comparative pharmacokinetics of weekly and every-three-weeks docetaxel. Clin Cancer Res 10: 1976-1983.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Barski OA, Gabbay KH, and Bohren KM (1996) The C-terminal loop of aldehyde reductase determines the substrate and inhibitor specificity. Biochemistry 35: 14276-14280.[CrossRef][Medline]

Barski OA, Gabbay KH, Grimshaw CE, and Bohren KM (1995) Mechanism of human aldehyde reductase: characterization of the active site pocket. Biochemistry 34: 11264-11275.[CrossRef][Medline]

Behnia K and Boroujerdi M (1999) Inhibition of aldo-keto reductases by phenobarbital alters metabolism pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of doxorubicin in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 51: 1275-1282.[CrossRef][Medline]

Danesi R, Fogli S, Gennari A, Conte P, and Del Tacca M (2002) Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships of the anthracycline anticancer drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 41: 431-444.[CrossRef][Medline]

D'Incalci M, Schuller J, Colombo T, Zucchetti M, and Riva A (1998) Taxoids in combination with anthracyclines and other agents: pharmacokinetic considerations. Semin Oncol 25 (Suppl 13): 16-20.[Medline]

Engel FB, Hauck L, Cardoso MC, Leonhardt H, Dietz R, and von Harsdorf R (1999) A mammalian myocardial cell-free system to study cell cycle reentry in terminally differentiated cardiomyocytes. Circ Res 85: 294-301.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Felsted RL, Gee M, and Bachur NR (1974) Rat liver daunorubicin reductase. An aldo-keto reductase. J Biol Chem 249: 3672-3679.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Finlay GJ and Baguley BC (2000) Effects of protein binding on the in vitro activity of antitumour acridine derivatives and related anticancer drugs. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 45: 417-422.[CrossRef][Medline]

Forrest GL and Gonzalez B (2000) Carbonyl reductase. Chem Biol Interact 129: 21-40.[CrossRef][Medline]

Forrest GL, Gonzalez B, Tseng W, Li X, and Mann J (2000) Human carbonyl reductase overexpression in the heart advances the development of doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in transgenic mice. Cancer Res 60: 5158-5164.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Gambliel HA, Burke BE, Cusack BJ, Walsh GM, Zhang YL, Mushlin PS, and Olson RD (2002) Doxorubicin and C-13 deoxydoxorubicin effects on ryanodine receptor gene expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 291: 433-438.[CrossRef][Medline]

Gewirtz DA (1999) A critical evaluation of the mechanisms of action proposed for the antitumor effects of the anthracycline antibiotics adriamycin and daunorubicin. Biochem Pharmacol 57: 727-741.[CrossRef][Medline]

Gianni L, Baselga J, Eiermann W, Guillem Porta V, Semiglazov V, Lluch A, Zambetti M, Sabadell D, Raab G, Llombart Cussac A, et al. (European Cooperative Trial in Operable Breast Cancer Study Group) (2005) Feasibility and tolerability of sequential doxorubicin/paclitaxel followed by cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and fluorouracil and its effects on tumor response as preoperative therapy. Clin Cancer Res 11: 8715-8721.

Gianni L, Munzone E, Capri G, Fulfaro F, Tarenzi E, Villani F, Spreafico C, Laffranchi A, Caraceni A, Martini C, et al. (1995) Paclitaxel by 3-hour infusion in combination with bolus doxorubicin in women with untreated metastatic breast cancer: high antitumor efficacy and cardiac effects in a dose-finding and sequence-finding study. J Clin Oncol 13: 2688-2699.[Abstract]

Gianni L, Vigano L, Locatelli A, Capri G, Giani A, Tarenzi E, and Bonadonna G (1997) Human pharmacokinetic characterization and in vitro study of the interaction between doxorubicin and paclitaxel in patients with breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 15: 1906-1915.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Grasselli G, Vigano L, Capri, Locatelli A, Tarenzi E, Spreafico C, Bertuzzi A, Giani A, Materazzo C, Cresta S, et al. (2001) Clinical and pharmacologic study of the epirubicin and paclitaxel combination in women with metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 19: 2222-2231.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Kessel D (1992) Properties of Cremophor EL micelles probed by fluorescence. Photochem Photobiol 56: 447-451.[Medline]

Loos WJ, Baker SD, Verweij J, Boonstra JG, and Sparreboom A (2003) Clinical pharmacokinetics of unbound docetaxel: role of polysorbate 80 and serum proteins. Clin Pharmacol Ther 74: 364-371.[CrossRef][Medline]

Maessen PA, Mross KB, Pinedo HM, and van der Vijgh WJ (1987) Metabolism of epidoxorubicin in animals: absence of glucuronidation. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 20: 85-87.[Medline]

Martin M, Pienkowski T, Mackey J, Pawlicki M, Guastalla JP, Weaver C, Tomiak E, Al-Tweigeri T, Chap L, Juhos E, et al., and Breast Cancer International Research Group 001 Investigators (2005) Adjuvant docetaxel for node-positive breast cancer. N Engl J Med 352: 2302-2313.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

McNamara PJ, Blouin RA, and Brazzell RK (1988) Serum protein binding of AL01576. Pharm Res (NY) 5: 319-321.

Minotti G, Menna P, Salvatorelli E, Cairo G, and Gianni L (2004) Anthracyclines: molecular advances and pharmacologic developments in antitumor activity and cardiotoxicity. Pharmacol Rev 56: 185-229.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Minotti G, Parlani M, Salvatorelli E, Menna P, Cipollone A, Animati F, Maggi CA, and Manzini S (2001a) Impairment of myocardial contractility by anticancer anthracyclines: role of secondary alcohol metabolites and evidence of reduced toxicity by a novel disaccharide analogue. Br J Pharmacol 134: 1271-1280.[Medline]

Minotti G, Saponiero A, Licata S, Menna A, Calafiore AM, Teodori G, and Gianni L (2001b) Paclitaxel and docetaxel enhance the metabolism of doxorubicin to toxic species in human myocardium. Clin Cancer Res 7: 1511-1515.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Mushlin PS, Cusack BJ, Boucek RJ Jr, Andrejuk T, Li X, and Olson RD (1993) Time-related increases in cardiac concentrations of doxorubicinol could interact with doxorubicin to depress myocardial contractile function. Br J Pharmacol 110: 975-982.[Medline]

Mylari BL, Beyer TA, and Siegel TW (1991) A highly specific aldose reductase inhibitor ethyl 1-benzyl-3-hydroxy-25H-oxopyrrole-4-carboxylate and its congeners. J Med Chem 34: 1011-1018.[CrossRef][Medline]

Nabholtz JM, Falkson C, Campos D, Szanto J, Martin M, Chan S, Pienkowski T, Zaluski J, Pinter T, Krzakowski M, et al. (2003) Docetaxel and doxorubicin compared with doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide as first-line chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer: results of a randomized, multicenter, phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 21: 968-975.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Nabholtz JM, Pienkowski T, Mackey J, Pawlicki M, Guastalla JP, Vogel C, Weaver C, Walley B, Martin M, Chap L, et al. (2002) Phase III trial comparing TAC (docetaxel, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide) with FAC (5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide) in the adjuvant treatment of node positive breast cancer (BC) patients: interim analysis of the BCIRG 001 study. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 21: 141A.

Ng SSW, Figg WD, and Sparreboom A (2004) Taxane-mediated antiangiogenesis in vitro: influence of formulation vehicles and binding proteins. Cancer Res 64: 821-824.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Olson LE, Bedja D, Alvey SJ, Cardounel AJ, Gabrielson KL, and Reeves RH (2003) Protection from doxorubicin-induced cardiac toxicity in mice with a null allele of carbonyl reductase 1. Cancer Res 63: 6602-6606.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Olson RD and Mushlin PS (1990) Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity: analysis of prevailing hypotheses. FASEB J 4: 3076-3086.[Abstract]

Olson RD, Mushlin PS, Brenner DE, Fleischer S, Chang BK, Cusack BJ, and Boucek RJ Jr (1988) Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity may be due to its metabolite, doxorubicinol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 3585-3589.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Perotti S, Cresta G, Grasselli G, Capri G, Minotti G, and Gianni L (2003) Cardiotoxic effects of anthracycline-taxane combinations. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2: 59-71.[Medline]

Salvatorelli E, Guarnieri S, Menna P, Liberi G, Calafiore AM, Mariggiò MA, Mordente A, Gianni L, and Minotti G (2006) Defective one or two electron reduction of the anticancer anthracycline epirubicin in human heart: relative importance of vesicular sequestration and impaired efficiency of electron addition. J Biol Chem 281: 10990-11001.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Slupe A, Williams B, Larson C, Lee LM, Primbs T, Bruesch AJ, Bjorklund C, Warner DL, Peloquin J, Shadle SE, et al. (2005) Reduction of 13-deoxydoxorubicin and daunorubicinol anthraquinones by human carbonyl reductase. Cardiovasc Toxicol 5: 365-376.[CrossRef][Medline]

Sparreboom A, Verweij J, van der Burg ME, Loos WJ, Brouwer E, Vigano L, Locatelli A, de Vos AI, Nooter K, Stoter G, et al. (1998) Disposition of Cremophor EL in humans limits the potential for modulation of the multidrug resistance phenotype in vivo. Clin Cancer Res 4: 1937-1942.[Abstract]

Stewart DJ, Grewaal D, Green RM, Mikhael N, Goel R, Montpetit VA, and Redmond MD (1993) Concentrations of doxorubicin and its metabolites in human autopsy heart and other tissues. Anticancer Res 13: 1945-1952.[Medline]

ten Tije AK, Verweij J, Loos WJ, and Sparreboom A (2003) Pharmacological effects of formulation vehicles: implications for cancer chemotherapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 42: 665-685.[CrossRef][Medline]

Valero V and Hortobagyi GN (2003) Are anthracycline-taxane regimens the new standard of care in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer? J Clin Oncol 21: 959-962.[Free Full Text]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				L. Gianni, E. H. Herman, S. E. Lipshultz, G. Minotti, N. Sarvazyan, and D. B. Sawyer Anthracycline Cardiotoxicity: From Bench to Bedside J. Clin. Oncol., August 1, 2008; 26(22): 3777 - 3784. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Salvatorelli, P. Menna, L. Gianni, and G. Minotti Defective Taxane Stimulation of Epirubicinol Formation in the Human Heart: Insight into the Cardiac Tolerability of Epirubicin-Taxane Chemotherapies J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., February 1, 2007; 320(2): 790 - 800. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: jpet.106.103846v1 318/1/424    most recent Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Salvatorelli, E. Articles by Minotti, G. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Salvatorelli, E. Articles by Minotti, G.