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BEHAVIORAL PHARMACOLOGY
Department of Applied Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama, Japan (H.N.); and Section of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, California (E.C.)
Received January 15, 2003; accepted April 4, 2003.
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract Materials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-methylserotonin, a
5-HT2 receptor agonist, also elicited scratching behavior in a
dose-dependent manner, indicating that acute 5-HT-induced scratching is
mediated via peripheral 5-HT2 receptors. To produce a model of
allergic pruritus, skin was sensitized by topical application of 5%
dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB). One month later, repeated challenge of the skin
with 0.2% DNFB at weekly intervals elicited scratching as part of the
immediate allergic response. Scratching was not affected by ketanserin or by
the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron, indicating that neither
5-HT2 nor 5-HT3 receptors is involved in itch-associated
scratching behavior caused by allergic skin dermatitis in rats.
;
Jones and Bergasa, 2000). The
mechanisms and mediators of chronic itch under these conditions are poorly
understood. Serotonin (5-HT) seems to be an important endogenous mediator of
acute itch. It produces a sensation of itch when applied to the human skin
(Weisshaar et al., 1997) and
has been suggested to be involved in the pruritus of polycythemia vera
(Fjellner and Hagermark, 1979;
Fitzsimons et al., 1981) and
cholestasis (Schworer et al.,
1995; Weisshaar et al.,
1999; Jones and Bergasa,
2000). 5-HT has been used widely as a representative pruritogen in
experimental models with rodents because it induces itch-associated scratching
behavior when applied intradermally, regardless of strain differences
(Inagaki et al., 2001). In
contrast, intradermal histamine induces scratching behavior in only a few
strains of mice (Inagaki et al.,
2001) and induces little if any scratching in rats
(Thomsen et al., 2001;
Jinks and Carstens, 2002).
Because a considerable amount of spontaneous scratching is observed in
untreated naive mice, whereas naive rats exhibit little or no spontaneous
scratching, the rat seems to be a suitable animal model to quantify acute
pruritogen-evoked scratching behavior. One goal of the present study was
therefore to investigate which 5-HT receptor subtypes are involved in acute
scratching elicited by intradermal 5-HT in the rat. Although 5-HT3
receptors have been implicated in itch associated with cholestasis, uremia,
and spinal opioids (Schworer et al.,
1995; Balaskas et al.,
1998; Kyriakides et al.,
1999), 5-HT3 receptor antagonists did not affect
scratching elicited by intradermal 5-HT in mice, in contrast to the blockade
of scratching by 5-HT2 antagonists
(Yamaguchi et al., 1999).
These data argue against a role for 5-HT3 receptors in acute evoked
scratching in mice. In the first part of this study, we have investigated the
role of the 5-HT2 receptor in mediating acute scratching behavior
in the rat.
A second goal of the present study was to develop a rat model of contact
dermatitis and to investigate the potential role of 5-HT in allergic pruritus.
Contact dermatitis is an allergic reaction induced by skin contact with
irritants such as haptens and metals. It is characterized by clearly
demarcated areas of rash at sites of exposure and is frequently accompanied by
intense itching. The rash and itch improve upon removal of the offending
agent. However, there is as yet no effective medication for this type of
pruritus. Rodent models of allergic pruritus have recently been developed
(Tahara et al., 1999;
Inagaki et al., 2000;
Ohtsuka et al., 2001;
Laidlaw et al., 2002). The
mouse or guinea pig is passively sensitized with a murine monoclonal IgE
antibody specific for the dinitrophenyl group and is later challenged with
2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) (Tahara et
al., 1999; Inagaki et al.,
2000) or repeated epicutaneous application of dinitrochlorobenzene
(Laidlaw et al., 2002). In the
present study, we have developed a rat model of allergic pruritus by first
exposing the animals to DNFB and then quantifying the itch-associated
scratching elicited by subsequent repeated challenge with DNFB. Finally, we
investigated a role for 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors in
scratching using this model.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Drugs. Serotonin hydrochloride (5-HT), -methylserotonin
maleate, ketanserin tartrate, and DNFB were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St.
Louis, MO). Ondansetron hydrochloride was a gift from Professor Y. Kuraishi
(Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama, Japan). All agents
except DNFB were dissolved in physiological saline (0.9% NaCl). The 5-HT and
-methylserotonin solutions were prepared freshly on each experimental
day. Ketanserin was also freshly prepared daily in a dose (3 mg/kg) that was
intermediate between 1- and 5-mg/kg doses that have been used previously
(Pourgholami and Goshadrou,
1995; Kettle et al.,
1999). Solutions of DNFB at concentrations of 5% (398 mM) or 0.2%
(16 mM) were prepared by dilution with acetone. Ketanserin and ondansetron
were injected intraperitoneally in a volume of 0.1 ml/100 g body weight, 30
min before intradermal injection of 2% 5-HT or application of 0.2% DNFB.
Acute Scratching Elicited by Intradermal Injection. At least 3 days before receiving an intradermal injection, fur over the nape of the neck was cut carefully with scissors. The rat was placed in a loose Plexiglas restrainer (to which it had also been acclimated before testing) that had an opening above the rat's neck. Skin at the nape of the neck was gently grasped with forceps and the injection needle (30.5-gauge) was quickly inserted at the midline to position the tip at the dermal-epidermal border. All intradermal injections were given in a 10-µl volume. The needle was left in place for 10 s postinjection and then removed.
Rats were tested under each of the following treatment conditions
(n = 8 rats/group): 1) intradermal saline as a control, 2)
intradermal 5-HT 2% (94 mM), 3) ketanserin i.p. followed 30 min later by
intradermal 5-HT 2%, and 4) intradermal -methylserotonin at
concentrations of 0.2, 0.5, and 2% (6.5, 16, and 65 mM, respectively), with
each concentration tested in a separate session. At least 4 days elapsed
between test sessions for each individual animal. Use of the same animals
under different treatment conditions allowed us to use paired t tests
to compare data between treatment conditions (see "Data
Analysis").
Allergic Pruritus Model Using DNFB. These experiments were conduced using a separate group of 10 rats. At least 3 days before receiving application of DNFB, the fur over the rostral portion of each rat's back was cut carefully with scissors. To sensitize the skin, a solution of 5% DNFB in a volume of 80 µl was applied to the middle portion of the exposed skin on the rostral back. Several days after the initial DNFP treatment, erosive skin was observed at the site of application in all rats. Approximately 1 month later, after the skin had recovered, 0.2% DNFB in a volume of 80 µl was applied to the same area that had previously been sensitized by DNFB. The 0.2% DNFB was reapplied in the same manner three additional times at 1-week intervals. Animals were videotaped immediately after each DNFB challenge for 60 min. The animals were videotaped again for 90-min periods at 4 and 24 h after the fourth DNFB challenge to check for the presence of spontaneous scratching.
Because scratching was consistent across the 4 DNFB challenges (see Results; Fig. 4), we additionally tested the effects of ketanserin and ondansetron on DNFB-evoked scratching in three additional challenges given at weekly intervals. Thirty minutes before each challenge with 0.2% DNFB, each animal received either saline (control), ketanserin, or ondansetron i.p.
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Observation and Scoring of Scratching Behavior. Procedures for
observing and scoring scratching behavior were described previously
(Jinks and Carstens, 2002).
Briefly, all animals were acclimated to the observation chamber (30 x 30
x 40 cm) in three daily sessions before testing, and on test days for 30
min before treatment. After intradermal injection or application of DNFB, the
rat was then quickly put back the observation chamber and videotaped from
above using a digital video camcorder (12 bit, OPTURA Pi; Canon, Irvine, CA)
for 40 (intradermal injections) or 60 min (DNFB application). Four rats were
treated and videotaped simultaneously in separate chambers. Experimenters left
the room during videotaping.
Analysis of videotapes was done by an experimenter blinded as to treatment condition. A scratching bout consisted of a series of one or more scratching movements by the hind paw that was directed toward the injection site, and ended when the rat either licked its hind paw or placed its hind paw back on the floor. The duration of each scratching bout was timed with a stopwatch. The total number of scratching bouts, and cumulative duration of bouts, was counted at 2-min intervals throughout the 40- or 60-min observation period. The mean duration of individual bouts was calculated by dividing total cumulative bout duration/40 (or 60) min by the number of scratching bouts/40 (or 60) min for each treatment group.
Statistical Analysis. Statistical comparisons were made using Student's t test, or one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett's multiple comparison. A p < 0.05 was considered to be significant. The mean values of data are presented together with S.E.M.
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Results |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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2 s was
approximately double that observed in controls
(Fig. 1D).
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5-HT2 Receptor Involvement in Acute Scratching. To investigate the involvement of the 5-HT2 receptor subtype in acute 5-HT-induced scratching, two experiments were undertaken. In the first, we assessed the effect of pretreatment with the selective 5-HT2 receptor antagonist ketanserin on acute scratching behavior elicited by intradermal 5-HT. Ketanserin at a dose of 3 mg/kg markedly reduced 5-HT-induced scratching (Fig. 2A). Two of the eight rats pretreated with ketanserin exhibited no scratching at all, although these animals did not show any signs of motor impairment. The total number of scratching bouts, as well as the cumulative duration of bouts over the 40-min observation period, were both significantly lower in animals pretreated with ketanserin compared with controls receiving saline followed by intradermal 5-HT (Fig. 2, B and C, respectively). However, the mean individual bout duration was not significantly different between treatment groups (Fig. 2D). No scratching was observed after i.p. administration of ketanserin before intradermal 5-HT.
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To confirm the involvement of the 5-HT2 receptor subtype, a
second experiment was undertaken to assess scratching elicited by intradermal
injection of the selective 5-HT2 receptor agonist
-methylserotonin. Intradermal injection of 2% -methylserotonin
elicited hind limb scratching directed toward the injection site with a lag
time of around 10 min (Fig.
3A). Lower concentrations of -methylserotonin elicited
scratching in a concentration-dependent manner
(Fig. 3, A and B). The total
number of scratching bouts, as well as mean cumulative duration of bouts over
the 40-min observation period, were significantly higher at all concentrations
of intradermal -MS compared with controls receiving intradermal saline
(designated as 0% -methylserotonin)
(Fig. 3, B and C, respectively). The mean individual bout durations of 1.5 to 2 s were not
significantly different among groups receiving different concentrations of
intradermal -methylserotonin, although the mean individual bout
duration for each of these groups was significantly greater compared with
controls receiving intradermal saline (Fig.
3D).
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Scratching in Allergic Pruritus Model Using DNFB. Rats were first sensitized by a topical application of 5% DNFB to skin on the rostral back. This initial application of DNFB elicited a very low number of scratching bouts during the 60-min observation period [Fig. 4A, top; 6.1 ± 1.3 (S.E.M.) bouts/60 min, n = 10], although this was significantly greater compared with control topical application of vehicle (acetone), which elicited negligible scratching (0.5 ± 0.4 bouts/60 min, n = 10). One month later, the skin was challenged by application of 0.2% DNFB to the same skin area previously treated with 5% DNFB. Each of the 10 rats exhibited pronounced hind limb scratching directed toward the treatment area (Fig. 4A, middle). Scratching began after a lag time of several minutes, peaked at about 10 min, and subsided within 30 min after DNFB application (Fig. 4A, middle).
The skin treatment area was repeatedly challenged with 0.2% DNFB at 1-week intervals. All rats exhibited scratching to the second, third, and forth DNFB challenges over a time course that was similar to that observed with the first DNFB challenge. Figure 4A, bottom, shows mean scratching bouts/2 min to the fourth DNFB challenge, which is similar to the first challenge (Fig. 4A, middle). To determine whether any spontaneous scratching occurred in these animals after the fourth DNFB challenge, they were again videotaped for 90 min at 4 and 24 h after the fourth DNFB challenge; the mean number of scratching bouts was 1.1 ± 1.0 bout/90 min and 0.8 ± 0.4 bouts/90 min, respectively. At the conclusion of each videotaping session, visual observation of the treated skin area did not reveal obvious edema.
The mean total number of scratching bouts and mean cumulative bout duration
per 60 min elicited by the series of DNFB challenges are plotted in
Fig. 4, B and C, respectively.
These values did not vary significantly across the four challenges with 0.2%
DNFB but in each case were significantly greater compared with these measures
of scratching elicited by the initial application of 5% DNFB. Likewise, the
mean individual bout duration of 2 to 2.5 s did not vary across repeated
challenges with 0.2% DNFB but was significantly greater compared with the
initial application of 5% DNFB (Fig.
4D).
DNFB-Elicited Scratching Is Not Reduced by5-HT2 or 5-HT3 Antagonists. To investigate the involvement of endogenous 5-HT2 or 5-HT3 receptor subtypes in scratching elicited by DNFB challenge, the effects of the selective antagonists ketanserin and ondansetron were tested. One, 2, and 3 weeks after the fourth DNFB challenge, each rat received i.p. injection of either saline, ketanserin, or ondansetron, followed 30 min later by skin challenge with 0.2% DNFB as before. Rats receiving i.p. saline followed by challenge with DNFB (fifth challenge) exhibited scratching bouts over a time course (Fig. 5A, top) that was indistinguishable from that observed after each of the first four DNFB challenges (Fig. 4A). In the rats treated with 3 mg/kg ketanserin followed by DNFB (sixth challenge; Fig. 5A, middle) or ondansetron followed by DNFB (seventh challenge; Fig. 5A, bottom), the time course of scratching bouts was similar to that of the i.p. saline controls (Fig. 5A, top). The mean total number of scratching bouts (Fig. 5B), as well as mean cumulative bout duration (Fig. 5C), were not statistically different across treatment groups, although there was a trend toward longer cumulative bout duration with ketanserin (Fig. 5C). Likewise, the mean duration of individual scratching bouts did not differ significantly across treatment groups (Fig. 5D).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-methylserotonin also elicited scratching bouts whose number varied in
a concentration-dependent manner. At the highest -methylserotonin
concentration used (2%), the mean number of scratching bouts and cumulative
bout duration, as well as the prolonged time course of scratching, were
comparable with the parameters of scratching elicited by 2% 5-HT (Figs.
1 and
3). The present findings
confirm a previous report that itch-associated scratching induced by
intradermal 5-HT is mediated via the 5-HT2 receptor subtype in mice
(Yamaguchi et al., 1999).
In rats, 5-HT seems to be one of the most consistent and effective
scratch-inducing agents. Intradermal injection of other agents that induce
itch in humans, such as histamine, compound 48/80, substance P, and proteases,
elicited little or no scratching in Sprague-Dawley rats
(Thomsen et al., 2001;
Jinks and Carstens, 2002).
Rodent mast cells contain relatively high concentrations of 5-HT
(Gustafsson, 1980;
Graziano, 1988;
Purcell et al., 1989),
consistent with a role for 5-HT as an itch mediator in rodents.
The average duration of individual scratching bouts was fairly constant at
1.5 to 2 s across all treatment conditions, with the exception that the
mean bout duration was shorter for the infrequent scratching bouts that
occurred after control intradermal saline injections or first-time application
of DNFB. We have separately observed that the within-bout scratching frequency
remains constant at a mean of 8 Hz across a variety of different pruritic
(intradermal 5-HT) and antipruritic (systemic naltrexone) treatment conditions
(Nojima and Carstens, 2003).
Given that both the mean duration of scratching bouts, and the within-bout
scratching frequency, are fairly constant, we conclude that the number of
scratching bouts over time is the most valid measure of the intensity of
itch-related scratching behavior.
Allergic Pruritus Model. Previous studies have used repeated
application of haptens such as DNFB to the ear of rodents as a model of
contact dermatitis (Tahara et al.,
1999; Inagaki et al.,
2000; Natsuaki et al.,
2000; Laidlaw et al.,
2002). Most of these studies have focused on hapten-induced
allergic skin reactions but have not extensively examined pruritus. For this
reason, we presently determined whether exposure of skin to DNFB might induce
an immune response such that subsequent challenge with DNFB elicits an
allergic reaction that includes pruritus as assessed by scratching. Although
the initial application of DNFB (5%) to the skin elicited very little
scratching, subsequent challenges to the treated skin area with a much lower
concentration of DNFB (0.2%) indeed elicited significant scratching,
suggesting that itch occurs as part of the allergic response. It was
previously reported that exposure of guinea pigs to another hapten, 2-4
dinitrochlorobenzene, resulted in a significant increase in scratching
behavior over a 15-h postexposure period
(Laidlaw et al., 2002).
Although we observed significant scratching in response to the DNFB challenge
in the sensitized rats, we did not observe any large degree of spontaneous
scratching at 24 h after the fourth DNFB challenge, which corresponds to the
late phase of allergic skin reactions
(Tahara et al., 1999;
Natsuaki et al., 2000). Our
data thus suggest that sensitization with DNFB did not in itself produce a
condition of chronic itch, but rather sensitized the animal so that a
subsequent challenge elicited an immediate allergic response that includes
itch.
It is of interest to compare the present results with those of a related
study of scratching elicited by mosquito bites
(Ohtsuka et al., 2001). In the
latter study, mice were initially exposed to mosquito bites or received
intradermal injection of mosquito salivary gland extract. They were
subsequently challenged with mosquito bites (or salivary gland extract) twice
weekly. There was a progressive increase in the number of scratching bouts
that became significant after 7 and 2 weeks, respectively, for mosquito bites
and injections of salivary gland extract
(Ohtsuka et al., 2001).
Scratching elicited by mosquito bites was not affected by an H1 histamine
antagonist. It was concluded that the scratching is part of an immediate
allergic reaction to a constituent of the mosquito salivary gland extract that
is independent of histamine release from cutaneous mast cells. In the present
study, the scratching elicited by acute challenge with DNFB in previously
sensitized rats may also represent an immediate allergic reaction. This
scratching is unlikely to be mediated by histamine release because
Sprague-Dawley rats do not exhibit significant scratching after intradermal
histamine (Thomsen et al.,
2001; Jinks and Carstens,
2002), nor was it affected by selective 5-HT2 or
5-HT3 receptor antagonists (Fig.
5). The shorter time course and lack of 5-HT2
involvement differentiate the scratching response in this allergic pruritus
model from the more prolonged time course of acute scratching elicited by
intradermal 5-HT via the 5-HT2 receptor subtype (Figs.
1,
2,
3). The important question of
which mediators cause itch during an acute allergic reaction remains to be
answered.
The scratching presently observed after each DNFB challenge was fairly
consistent in terms of the time course of scratching bouts, the total number
of scratching bouts, and both individual and cumulative bout duration
(Fig. 5). This result was
fortuitous because it afforded us the possibility to investigate the effects
of 5-HT antagonists on DNFB-evoked scratching. Ketanserin at a dose that
significantly suppressed scratching elicited by acute intradermal injection of
5-HT (Fig. 2) did not affect
scratching elicited by the DNFB challenge in sensitized rats
(Fig. 5). We additionally
investigated a possible role for 5-HT3 receptors, because
antipruritic effects of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, including
ondansetron have been reported for patients with cholestatic and uremic
pruritus (Schworer et al.,
1995; Balaskas et al.,
1998). Moreover, the selective 5-HT3 receptor
antagonist tropisetron reduced itch elicited by application of 5-HT to skin in
which mast cells had been previously depleted
(Weisshaar et al., 1999).
However, ondansetron did not affect the scratching elicited by DNFB challenge
in sensitized rats (Fig. 5).
These results therefore indicate that endogenous 5-HT acting through
5-HT2 or 5-HT3 receptors is not importantly involved as
a mediator of itch-associated scratching behavior in the present model of
allergic pruritus. This further suggests that the mechanism underlying
allergic pruritus in this model differs from acute itch-related scratching via
5-HT2 receptors. Nevertheless, future studies using such newly
developed rodent models will hopefully shed light on the mediators of itch
associated with allergic reactions and other skin disorders, thereby providing
a rational basis for the development of new antipruritic treatments.
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Footnotes |
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ABBREVIATIONS: 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); DNFB; dinitrofluorobenzene; ANOVA, analysis of variance.
Address correspondence to: Dr. E. Carstens, Section of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California-Davis, 1 Shields Ave., Davis, CA 95616. E-mail address: eecarstens{at}ucdavis.edu
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