QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: jpet.102.046870v1 305/3/812    most recent Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Cichewicz, D. L. Articles by Welch, S. P. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Cichewicz, D. L. Articles by Welch, S. P.

BEHAVIORAL PHARMACOLOGY

Modulation of Oral Morphine Antinociceptive Tolerance and Naloxone-Precipitated Withdrawal Signs by Oral ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol

Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia

Received for publication November 21, 2002
Accepted February 3, 2003.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Previous studies have demonstrated a functional interaction between cannabinoid and opioid systems in the development and expression of morphine tolerance and dependence. In these experiments, we examined the effect of a low oral dose of ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (⁹-THC) on the development of oral morphine tolerance and the expression of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal signs of jumping and diarrhea in ICR mice. Chronic treatment with high-dose oral morphine produced a 3.12-fold antinociceptive tolerance. Tolerance to morphine was prevented in groups receiving a daily cotreatment with a nonanalgetic dose (20 mg/kg p.o.) of ⁹-THC, except when challenged with a very high dose of morphine. The chronic coadministration of low-dose ⁹-THC also reduced naloxone-precipitated (1 mg/kg s.c.) platform jumping by 50% but did not reduce diarrhea. In separate experiments, mice treated chronically with high-dose morphine p.o. were not cross-tolerant to ⁹-THC; in fact, these morphine-tolerant mice were more sensitive to the acute antinociceptive effects of ⁹-THC. ⁹-THC (20 mg/kg p.o.) also reduced naloxone-precipitated jumping but not diarrhea when administered acutely to morphine-tolerant mice. These results represent the first evidence that oral morphine tolerance and dependence can be circumvented by coadministration of a nonanalgetic dose of ⁹-THC p.o. In summary, cotreatment with a combination of morphine and ⁹-THC may prove clinically beneficial in that long-term morphine efficacy is maintained.

Our laboratory and others have shown that combinations of cannabinoids with morphine profoundly enhance morphine-induced analgesia. ⁹-THC at a nonanalgetic dose administered p.o. to mice significantly enhances the potency of opioids such as morphine and codeine (Smith et al., 1998; Cichewicz et al., 1999). This enhancement is theorized to be due to a combination of morphine's direct effects on the µ-opioid receptor and the effect of endogenous opioids whose release is stimulated by ⁹-THC (Smith et al., 1994; Pugh et al., 1996). In addition, the CB1 cannabinoid receptor and µ-opioid receptor have been found to be colocalized in areas important for the expression of morphine abstinence: nucleus accumbens, septum, striatum, periaqueductal gray area, and amygdaloid nucleus (Navarro et al., 1998). Thus, we hypothesize that ⁹-THC might alter the expression of morphine antinociceptive tolerance and/or dependence.

⁹-THC reduces naloxone-precipitated withdrawal in morphine-dependent rats and mice (Hine et al., 1975; Bhargava, 1976). The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide also decreases naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal (Vela et al., 1995). Furthermore, several studies indicate that the morphine withdrawal syndrome is markedly decreased in CB1-receptor knockout mice (Ledent et al., 1999; Lichtman et al., 2001). Blockade of the CB1 receptor by the antagonist SR 141716A has been shown to precipitate morphine withdrawal signs such as weight loss, teeth chattering, and diarrhea in dependent rats (Navarro et al., 1998). Recently, acute administration of ⁹-THC blocked some signs of morphine withdrawal in mice (paw tremors and head shakes), but not jumping or diarrhea (Lichtman et al., 2001). These findings suggest a role of the endogenous cannabinoid system in opioid dependence. However, similar studies have never been performed using orally administered cannabinoids. An oral preparation of ⁹-THC (Marinol) is approved in the United States for several indications including cachexia and emesis. Our study of orally administered ⁹-THC for prevention of tolerance or dependence to morphine was designed to provide a potential new indication for Marinol, based on our previous data with ⁹-THC/morphine combinations.

In the present study, we investigated the effect of an orally administered nonanalgetic dose of ⁹-THC in altering the behavioral expression of oral morphine tolerance and physical dependence by examining antinociception and naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs (platform jumping and diarrhea). In addition to examining the effects of acutely administered ⁹-THC on the expression of morphine abstinence, we also evaluated the ability of the low-dose ⁹-THC coadministered with morphine for 7 days to prevent development of tolerance to and/or dependence on morphine. A clinical extrapolation for such findings would be important, since lower doses of drugs are desirable to maximize pain relief but minimize side effects and drug tolerance.

	Materials and Methods

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Animals. Male ICR mice (Harlan, Indianapolis, IN) weighing 20 to 24 g were housed three per cage in an animal care facility maintained at 22 ± 2°C on a 12-h light/dark cycle. Food and water were available ad libitum. Chronic drug administration was done in the animal care facility, and then the mice were brought to the test room 12 h before testing to allow acclimation and recovery from transport and handling. All experiments were conducted in accordance with guidelines from the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Virginia Commonwealth University.

Chronic Drug Administration. Mice were administered distilled water vehicle or morphine by oral gavage in a ramped paradigm twice daily for 7 days (200 mg/kg, days 1–2; 300 mg/kg, days 3–7). This paradigm was used to prevent toxicity at the beginning of the study from the high 300 mg/kg morphine dose that produces a robust morphine tolerance. To confirm tolerance to morphine, groups of six mice treated with the above paradigm were challenged 12 h after the last chronic administration with varying doses of morphine p.o. (one dose per group) and tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test to obtain dose-response curves for morphine.

Prevention of Morphine Tolerance and Dependence. For chronic combination studies, separate groups of six mice were administered a dose of 20 mg/kg ⁹-THC p.o., 15 min before each morphine administration as described above (twice daily for 7 days). This dose of ⁹-THC was previously determined to produce less than 20% antinociceptive effect in acute dose-response studies (Fig. 1). In addition, previous work in the laboratory has determined that this dose of ⁹-THC given orally twice daily for 7 days does not yield antinociceptive tolerance (D. L. Cichewicz, unpublished observations). On the test day, the mice were challenged 12 h after the last chronic administration with varying doses of morphine p.o. (one dose per group) and tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test to obtain a dose-response curve for morphine.

View larger version (9K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Dose-response analysis of 9-THC administered acutely to mice. Note that a 20 mg/kg dose produces less than 20% MPE and therefore was chosen as our low dose for subsequent experiments. Mice were administered various doses of 9-THC p.o. and tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test for antinociception. Each data point represents an average % MPE ± S.E.M. of six mice.

Reversal of Morphine Tolerance and Dependence. In the studies of the acute effects of ⁹-THC on morphine tolerance and withdrawal, separate groups of six mice were treated with the chronic morphine paradigm described earlier (200 mg/kg, days 1–2; 300 mg/kg, days 3–7) twice daily. The mice were then administered various doses of ⁹-THC p.o. 12 h after their last chronic morphine administration and tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test for antinociception.

Evaluation of Physical Dependence to Morphine. Separate groups of six mice were challenged with 1 mg/kg naloxone s.c. 2 h after the last drug administration. Immediately after naloxone injection, each mouse was placed on an elevated pedestal, with a platform 1 foot in height x 4 inches in diameter, and observed for 10 min for the presence or absence of jumping and diarrhea, two signs indicative of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal (Way et al., 1969). Data are presented as the percentage of mice (in a group of six) that exhibited platform jumping or diarrhea.

Analgesic Assay. The tail-flick heat latency test for antinociception was designed by D'Amour and Smith (1941). A radiant heat light focused on the tail of the mouse automatically shuts off when the mouse reflexively "flicks" its tail out of the light beam. Baseline tail-flick latencies were determined prior to drug administration on the test day and were between 2 and 4 s. During drug testing, a cutoff time of 10 s was employed to prevent damage to the tail. Antinociception was quantified using the percentage of maximum possible effect (% MPE) calculated as developed by Harris and Pierson (1964) as follows: % MPE = [(test – baseline)/(10 – baseline)] x 100. A mean % MPE value was determined for each group of six mice.

Statistical Analysis. ED₅₀ values, potency ratios, and 95% confidence limits (CL) for morphine dose-response curves were determined using unweighted least-squares linear regression as modified from procedures 5 and 8 described by Tallarida and Murray (1987). Comparisons between groups in the dependence studies were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the Tukey-Kramer post hoc test for between-group comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Drugs. ⁹-THC and morphine were obtained from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Bethesda, MD). ⁹-THC was prepared in 1:1:18 (ethanol/Emulphor/isotonic saline), and morphine was dissolved in distilled water.

	Results

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
⁹-THC Dose-Response Curve. To determine a nonanalgetic dose of ⁹-THC for use in combination studies, we performed an acute dose-response analysis (Fig. 1). Based on the data, we chose a 20 mg/kg dose, which produces less than 20% MPE, as our low inactive dose to combine with morphine in further studies. This dose has been reported in the literature as the most effective for enhancement of morphine analgesia without producing intrinsic antinociception (Smith et al., 1998; Cichewicz et al., 1999).

Effects of Chronic ⁹-THC on the Prevention of Morphine Tolerance. Mice were treated twice daily for 7 days with either distilled water vehicle p.o. or morphine p.o. (200 mg/kg on days 1–2; 300 mg/kg on days 3–7). Administration of morphine p.o. on the test day produced a dose-response relationship in chronic vehicle-treated mice (ED₅₀ = 40.3 mg/kg; Fig. 2). In morphine-tolerant mice, the dose-response curve of morphine was shifted to the right 3.12-fold, as determined by the ED₅₀ values (Table 1). When ⁹-THC was administered concurrently with morphine for 7 days, THC prevented the development of morphine tolerance. Although the curves showed a trend toward convergence at the highest dose of morphine tested, the ED₅₀ value of 48.5 mg/kg (95% CL = 29.7–79.0) for the combination was similar to that of the vehicle-treated group, and the 95% CL overlapped, indicating that the vehicle curve and the combination curve were not significantly different. Thus, the addition of ⁹-THC prevented the development of morphine tolerance in these animals.

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. A dose of 20 mg/kg 9-THC p.o. attenuates the development of oral morphine tolerance. Mice received distilled water vehicle, morphine (200 mg/kg p.o., days 1–2; 300 mg/kg p.o., days 3–7), or morphine plus 20 mg/kg 9-THC p.o. twice daily for 7 days. At 12 h after the last drug administration, various doses of morphine were administered p.o. and the mice were tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test. Each data point represents an average % MPE ± S.E.M. of six mice.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 1 Morphine ED50 values after 7-day treatment with vehicle, morphine, or a combination of 9-THC and morphine

Effect of Chronic ⁹-THC on the Prevention of Physical Dependence to Morphine. To evaluate whether ⁹-THC would alter the expression of behavioral withdrawal signs associated with morphine dependence, mice were treated twice daily for 7 days with orally administered distilled water vehicle, morphine alone, or morphine in combination with a low 20 mg/kg dose of ⁹-THC as described earlier. On the test day, the mice were challenged with 1 mg/kg naloxone s.c. 2 h after the last drug administration. As shown in Fig. 3, vehicle-treated mice exhibited no platform jumping behavior, whereas morphine-treated mice all exhibited platform jumping, indicating development of morphine dependence. The concurrent administration of ⁹-THC with morphine for 7 days significantly reduced the number of mice showing platform jumping by 50%. However, the occurrence of platform jumping was not completely prevented by the daily administration of ⁹-THC. Interestingly, naloxone-induced diarrhea was significantly increased in the morphine group treated daily with ⁹-THC (Fig. 4). Although locomotor activity was not directly measured in this study, we did not observe any distinct differences between any of the treatment groups during the 10-min period on the jumping platforms.

View larger version (11K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Effects of 9-THC on naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal platform jumping. Mice were treated chronically with either distilled water vehicle, morphine (200 mg/kg p.o., days 1–2; 300 mg/kg p.o., days 3–7), or morphine plus 20 mg/kg 9-THC p.o. twice daily for 7 days. Naloxone (1 mg/kg s.c.) was injected 2 h after the last drug administration, and the mice were immediately placed on platforms and observed for 10 min. Results are presented as the percentage of mice in each group of six that jumped from the platform. , significantly different from vehicletreated group (p < 0.05). #, significantly different from morphine-treated group (p < 0.05), ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post hoc test.

View larger version (11K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Effects of 9-THC on naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal diarrhea. Mice were treated chronically with either distilled water vehicle, morphine (200 mg/kg p.o., days 1–2; 300 mg/kg p.o., days 3–7), or morphine plus 20 mg/kg 9-THC p.o. twice daily for 7 days. Naloxone (1 mg/kg s.c.) was injected 2 h after the last drug administration, and the mice were immediately placed on platforms and observed for 10 min. Results are presented as the percentage of mice in each group of six that exhibited diarrhea. , significantly different from vehicle-treated group (p < 0.05), ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post hoc test.

Effects of Acute ⁹-THC on the Reversal of Morphine Tolerance. The purpose of this experiment was to determine the antinociceptive efficacy of ⁹-THC or combinations of ⁹-THC and morphine after the development of morphine tolerance. Mice received distilled water vehicle or morphine twice daily for 7 days according to the above paradigms. On the test day, mice received vehicle (1:1:18) or various doses of ⁹-THC p.o. 12 h after the last morphine administration and were tested for antinociception 30 min later in the tail-flick test. In vehicle-treated mice, ⁹-THC produced a dose-response relationship, with the 1 mg/kg dose producing a low degree of antinociception similar to vehicle, whereas the 50 mg/kg dose produced significant antinociception (Fig. 5). Morphine-tolerant mice showed a much greater antinociceptive response to lower doses of ⁹-THC than did their vehicle-treated counterparts, suggesting that morphine-tolerant mice were more sensitive to ⁹-THC-induced antinociception and were not cross-tolerant to ⁹-THC. A dose of 50 mg/kg ⁹-THC was equally effective in vehicle-treated and morphine-tolerant mice.

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Effects of acutely administered 9-THC p.o. in vehicle-treated and morphine-tolerant mice. Mice were administered distilled water vehicle or morphine (200 mg/kg p.o., days 1–2; 300 mg/kg p.o., days 3–7) twice daily for 7 days. At 12 h after the last drug treatment, 9-THC p.o. or vehicle (1:1:18) p.o. was administered, and the mice were tested 30 min later in the tail-flick test. Data are presented as mean ± S.E.M. with six mice per group. , significantly different from corresponding vehicle-treated group (p < 0.05). $, significantly different from vehicle-treated/vehicle-tested group (p < 0.05). #, significantly different from morphine-treated/vehicle-tested group (p < 0.05), ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post hoc test.

Effect of Acute ⁹-THC on the Expression of Physical Dependence on Morphine. To determine whether ⁹-THC could prevent the expression of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal signs, we administered vehicle (1:1:18) or various doses of ⁹-THC to chronic vehicle-treated and morphine-treated mice 12 h after their last vehicle or morphine administration. A 1 mg/kg s.c. dose of naloxone was injected 2 h after ⁹-THC, and mice were observed for 10 min for jumping and diarrhea. All doses of ⁹-THC tested reduced naloxone-precipitated platform jumping behavior in morphine-dependent mice by 50% (Fig. 6). However, there were still a significant number of morphine-treated animals exhibiting jumping as compared with vehicle-treated animals. There were no differences in naloxone-precipitated diarrhea among these groups (data not shown). Again, no differences in locomotor activity were observed.

View larger version (14K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6. Effects of acutely administered 9-THC on naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal platform jumping. Mice were treated chronically with either distilled water vehicle or morphine (200 mg/kg p.o., days 1–2; 300 mg/kg p.o., days 3–7) p.o. twice daily for 7 days. At 12 h after the last drug administration, vehicle (1:1:18) or 9-THC p.o. was administered. Naloxone (1 mg/kg s.c.) was injected 2 h later, and the mice were immediately placed on platforms and observed for 10 min. Results are presented as the percentage of mice in each group of six that jumped from the platform. , significantly different from corresponding vehicle-treated group (p < 0.05). #, significantly different from morphine-treated/vehicle-tested group (p < 0.05), ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post hoc test.

	Discussion

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
There are several similarities in the pharmacology of ⁹-THC and morphine, and it has been shown that an interaction exists between cannabinoid and opioid pathways. Our aim was to investigate the effects of acute and repetitive oral treatment with the cannabinoid ⁹-THC on the expression of tolerance to and physical dependence on morphine. We show that cotreatment of mice with a low dose of ⁹-THC prevents the development of morphine tolerance and attenuates the level of physical dependence as measured by withdrawal jumping and diarrhea. These results support an interaction between endogenous cannabinoid and opioid systems. It was important for us to explore the oral route of administration, since both ⁹-THC and morphine are administered orally in clinics. The data presented here are the first report of the prevention of morphine tolerance by a low oral dose of ⁹-THC.

Morphine tolerance has been demonstrated in many different models (Way et al., 1969; Huidobro et al., 1976). Cellular events that occur in morphine tolerance include desensitization of the µ-opioid receptor and a reduction in µ-opioid agonist potency (Yoburn et al., 1993; Bernstein and Welch, 1998). The development of tolerance to morphine is also consistent with down-regulation of the µ-opioid receptor at spinal and supraspinal sites (Bernstein and Welch, 1998; Cichewicz et al., 2001). However, observation of receptor down-regulation is highly variable with in vivo studies.

We hypothesized that replacing morphine treatment with combination ⁹-THC/morphine treatment would prevent morphine antinociceptive tolerance. Our data support that hypothesis, since after a 7-day treatment with both morphine and ⁹-THC, no antinociceptive tolerance to morphine occurred. At the highest challenge dose of morphine, there was a trend for the combination-treated curve to resemble the morphine-tolerant curve. Yet, statistically, the ED₅₀ values of these two curves were different. The mechanism by which ⁹-THC prevents morphine tolerance at low doses but not high doses has yet to be defined. However, it seems logical that the two drugs together might yield an increase, not a decrease, in the likelihood of tolerance development, due to enhancement of morphine-induced antinociception by ⁹-THC and a potential for greater-than-normal stimulation of opioid receptors by ⁹-THC-induced release of endogenous opioids (Smith et al., 1994; Pugh et al., 1996). Since morphine tolerance is associated with desensitization of µ-opioid receptors (for review, see Williams et al., 2001), it is possible that ⁹-THC enhances the efficacy of G-protein coupling to µ-receptors and thus prevents desensitization. Corchero et al. (1999) report that administration of ⁹-THC for 1, 3, 7, or 14 days causes an increase in DAMGO-stimulated guanosine 5'-O-(3-[³⁵S]thio)triphosphate binding in the caudate-putamen, supporting the theory that ⁹-THC increases opioid receptor/transduction coupling. The RAVE theory (relative activity versus endocytosis) by Whistler et al. (1999) suggests that morphine, although a high-efficacy agonist, has little ability to induce endocytosis of µ-opioid receptors that would attenuate prolonged signaling by chronic administration of morphine. However, in combination with DAMGO, an enkephalin derivative, cells containing morphine-bound receptors showed profound endocytosis (He et al., 2002). Therefore, in our combination treatment, endogenous opioids released by ⁹-THC may enhance morphine's ability to endocytose and recycle its receptors, thus reducing the development of tolerance. The argument that an increase in ⁹-THC-induced analgesia over 7 days may contribute to the reduction in morphine tolerance can be countered by the fact that there is no analgesic response at the lowest challenge dose of morphine, indicating that neither morphine nor ⁹-THC is contributing to provide analgesia. Further work with receptor antagonists may elucidate these mechanisms.

Other possibilities in defining the role of ⁹-THC in prevention of morphine tolerance involve second-messenger systems. Acute administration of morphine decreases adenylyl cyclase activity, thus reducing intracellular levels of cAMP, whereas chronic morphine causes an up-regulation of adenylyl cyclase activity (Sharma et al., 1975). In morphine withdrawal, an increase in neurotransmitter release is initiated through a cAMP-dependent mechanism (Valverde et al., 1996; Williams et al., 2001), and so cAMP levels remain elevated. Since acute ⁹-THC has been shown to reduce cAMP, it may be possible that ⁹-THC acts in opposition to morphine to maintain basal cAMP levels, thus preventing tolerance to morphine. NMDA receptor activation has also been implicated in the development of morphine tolerance and dependence (for review, see Mao, 1999). NMDA receptor antagonists such as MK-801 and dextromethorphan have been effective in preventing tolerance to and dependence on morphine. It is possible that ⁹-THC may have actions similar to those of NMDA antagonists.

The potency of acute ⁹-THC is greatly increased in morphine-tolerant mice, indicating that these mice are more sensitive to the cannabinoid's antinociceptive effects and do not become tolerant to ⁹-THC, in contrast to previous reports in which morphine-pelleted mice demonstrated a significant decrease in the analgesic effects of ⁹-THC i.p. (Thorat and Bhargava, 1994). These two studies differ in the route of administration of drugs and mouse strain, as well as length of drug administration. However, others report that antinociceptive effects of ⁹-THC are potentiated in morphine-dependent rats (Rubino et al., 1997). It is possible that the induction of oral morphine tolerance causes an alteration in the CB1 system, increasing the potency of ⁹-THC. These results suggest that effective antinociception can be produced in morphine-tolerant subjects utilizing 20 mg/kg ⁹-THC.

Combination therapy reduces not only morphine tolerance, but dependence as well. A 20 mg/kg p.o. dose of ⁹-THC administered for 7 days with morphine reduced naloxone-precipitated platform jumping by 50%. Previous studies show that repetitive pretreatment with ⁹-THC in mice treated chronically with morphine significantly reduces naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs (Valverde et al., 2001). Morphine withdrawal is associated with decreased dopamine levels in various brain regions associated with reward such as the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens (Tokuyama et al., 2000; Walters et al., 2000). ⁹-THC may be reducing the severity of morphine withdrawal by increasing dopamine levels in these areas (Melis et al., 2000). However, reports have shown that chronic administration of SR 141716A, the CB1 antagonist, also lessens several morphine withdrawal symptoms (Mas-Nieto et al., 2001). These authors hypothesize that stabilization of CB1 receptors upon antagonist binding may sequester a pool of G_i/o-proteins away from µ-opioid receptors, thus reducing the development of dependence to morphine. ⁹-THC may serve the same function by usurping signaling pathways utilized by morphine to produce dependence at µ-receptors. These data, in which both an agonist and an antagonist at the CB1 receptor reduce the signs of morphine withdrawal, support an interaction between endogenous opioid and cannabinoid systems. However, we can conclude that there is a clear separation of morphine tolerance and physical dependence, since ⁹-THC was able to completely prevent morphine tolerance but only partially reduced signs of morphine withdrawal.

Only 20% of morphine-tolerant mice exhibited diarrhea upon injection of naloxone. Furthermore, mice that received ⁹-THC daily with morphine for 7 days exhibited an increased occurrence of diarrhea upon naloxone injection. However, Lichtman et al. (2001) report that a 1 mg/kg s.c. dose of naloxone precipitates diarrhea in all morphine-tolerant mice tested. The reason for the increase in naloxone-precipitated diarrhea in combination-treated mice is unclear; however, it may be that diarrhea is not as reliable as platform jumping to measure morphine withdrawal. Studies using the cannabinoid antagonist SR 141716A would further help to elucidate the role of ⁹-THC in the production of diarrhea in these mice.

Our results agree with previous reports that acute administration of ⁹-THC and other cannabinoids also decreases naloxone-precipitated jumping in morphine-dependent rodents (Hine et al., 1975; Bhargava, 1976). Yamaguchi et al. (2001) suggest that the appearance of withdrawal signs in morphine-dependent mice results from an inactivation of CB1 receptors and/or the inhibition of release or synthesis of endocannabinoids. Thus, during morphine dependence, the endocannabinoid system may be activated, whereas withdrawal may inactivate the system. The acute administration of ⁹-THC prior to precipitation of morphine withdrawal by naloxone may prevent inactivation of the endocannabinoid system by providing an alternate way of stimulating CB1 receptors. However, others have failed to ameliorate jumping with acute ⁹-THC (Lichtman et al., 2001). Differences in naloxone dose may account for the disparity. The dose of naloxone used in the present studies (1 mg/kg s.c.) has consistently been shown to precipitate morphine withdrawal symptoms (Campbell et al., 2000; Mas-Nieto et al., 2001). Other researchers have used heroic doses of naloxone up to 50 mg/kg s.c., far beyond the selectivity of antagonizing µ-opioid receptors, and could clearly result in discrepancies from our results.

In summary, we have presented the first evidence that oral morphine tolerance can be prevented by coadministration of a low dose of oral ⁹-THC. This dose of ⁹-THC, although inactive on its own, is also sufficient to reduce the naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal sign of platform jumping in mice. The clinical implication of this work is the possibility that ⁹-THC and morphine in combination therapy may be more effective analgesics for a longer period of time than morphine alone, without tolerance to subsequent opioid treatments. In addition, the potential cross-talk between cannabinoid and opioid systems in the development of morphine dependence may indicate new strategies for treatment of opioid addiction.

	Footnotes

 
This work was supported by National Institute on Drug Abuse Grants DA-07027, DA-05274, and K02-DA-00186.

Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at http://jpet.aspetjournals.org.

DOI: 10.1124/jpet.102.046870.

ABBREVIATIONS: ⁹-THC, ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol; SR 141716A, N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboximide hydrochloride; % MPE, percentage of maximum possible effect; CL, confidence limits; ANOVA, analysis of variance; DAMGO, [D-Ala²,N-Me-Phe⁴,Gly⁵-ol]-enkephalin; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; MK-801, dizocilpine maleate.

Address correspondence to: Dr. Sandra P. Welch, P.O. Box 980613, MCV Station, Richmond, VA 23298-0613. E-mail: Swelch{at}hsc.vcu.edu

	References

Top Abstract Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 

Bernstein MA and Welch SP (1998) Mu opioid receptor downregulation and cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation in a mouse model of chronic morphine tolerance. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 55: 237–242.[Medline]
Bhargava HN (1976) Effect of some cannabinoids on naloxone-precipitated abstinence in morphine-dependent mice. Psychopharmacology 49: 267–270.[CrossRef][Medline]
Bhargava HN (1978) Quantitation of morphine tolerance induced by pellet implantation in the rat. J Pharm Pharmacol 30: 133–135.[Medline]
Campbell VC, Dewey WL, and Welch SP (2000) Comparison of [3H]Glyburide binding with opiate analgesia, tolerance and dependence in ICR and Swiss-Webster mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 295: 1112–1119.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Cicero TJ and Meyer ER (1973) Morphine pellet implantation in rats: quantitative assessment of tolerance and dependence. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 184: 404–408.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Cichewicz DL, Haller VL, and Welch SP (2001) Changes in opioid and cannabinoid receptor protein following short-term combination treatment with ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and morphine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 297: 1–7.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Cichewicz DL, Martin ZL, Smith FL, and Welch SP (1999) Enhancement of µ opioid antinociception by oral 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: dose-response analysis and receptor identification. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 289: 859–867.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Corchero J, Romero J, Berrendero F, Fernandez-Ruiz J, Ramos JA, Fuentes JA, and Manzanares J (1999) Time-dependent differences of repeated administration with Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in proenkephalin and cannabinoid receptor gene expression and G-protein activation by mu-opioid and CB1-cannabinoid receptors in the caudate-putamen. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 67: 148–157.[Medline]
D'Amour FE and Smith DL (1941) A method for determining loss of pain sensation. J Pharmacologie 72: 74–79.
Ellison NM (1993) Opioid analgesics for cancer pain: toxicities and their treatments, in Cancer Pain (Patt RB ed) pp 185–194, JB Lippincott, Philadelphia.
Harris LS and Pierson AK (1964) Some narcotic antagonists in the benzomorphan series. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 143: 141–148.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
He L, Fong J, von Zastrow M, and Whistler JL (2002) Regulation of opioid receptor trafficking and morphine tolerance by receptor oligomerization. Cell 108: 271–282.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hine B, Friedman E, Torrelio M, and Gershon S (1975) Morphine-dependent rats: blockade of precipitated abstinence by tetrahydrocannabinol. Science (Wash DC) 187: 443–445.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Huidobro F, Huidobro-Toro JP, and Leong Way E (1976) Studies on tolerance development to single doses of morphine in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 198: 318–329.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Ledent C, Valverde O, Cossu G, Petitet F, Aubert JF, Beslot F, Bohme GA, Imperato A, Pedrazzini T, Roques BP, et al. (1999) Unresponsiveness to cannabinoids and reduced addictive effects of opiates in CB1 receptor knockout mice. Science (Wash DC) 283: 401–404.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Lichtman AH, Sheikh SM, Loh HH, and Martin BR (2001) Opioid and cannabinoid modulation of precipitated withdrawal in ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and morphine-dependent mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 298: 1007–1014.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Mao J (1999) NMDA and opioid receptors: their interactions in antinociception, tolerance and neuroplasticity. Brain Res Rev 30: 289–304.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mao J, Price DD, Caruso FS, and Mayer DJ (1996) Oral administration of dextromethorphan prevents the development of morphine tolerance and dependence in rats. Pain 67: 361–368.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mas-Nieto M, Pommier B, Tzavara ET, Caneparo A, Da Nascimento S, Le Fur G, Roques BP, and Noble F (2001) Reduction of opioid dependence by the CB1 antagonist SR141716A in mice: evaluation of the interest in pharmacotherapy of opioid addiction. Br J Pharmacol 132: 1809–1816.[CrossRef][Medline]
Melis M, Gessa GL, and Diana M (2000) Different mechanisms for dopaminergic excitation induced by opiates and cannabinoids in the rat midbrain. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24: 993–1006.[CrossRef][Medline]
Navarro M, Chowen J, Carrera MRA, del Arco I, Villanua MA, Martin Y, Roberts AJ, Koob GF, and Rodriguez de Fonseca F (1998) CB1 cannabinoid receptor antagonist-induced opiate withdrawal in morphine-dependent rats. Neuroreport 9: 3397–3402.[Medline]
Pugh G, Smith PB, Dombrowski DS, and Welch SP (1996) The role of endogenous opioids in enhancing the antinociception produced by the combination of ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and morphine in the spinal cord. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 279: 608–616.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Rubino T, Tizzoni L, Vigano D, Massi P, and Parolaro D (1997) Modulation of rat brain cannabinoid receptors after chronic morphine treatment. Neuroreport 8: 3219–3223.[Medline]
Sharma SK, Klee WA, and Nirenberg M (1975) Dual regulation of adenylate cyclase accounts for narcotic dependence and tolerance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 72: 3092–3096.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Smith FL, Cichewicz D, Martin ZL, and Welch SP (1998) The enhancement of morphine antinociception by 9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 60: 559–566.[CrossRef][Medline]
Smith PB, Welch SP, and Martin BR (1994) Interactions between ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol and kappa opioids in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 268: 1382–1387.
Tallarida RJ and Murray RB (1987) Procedures 5 and 8, in Manual of Pharmacologic Calculations With Computer Programs, pp 16–18, 26–31. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Thorat SN and Bhargava HN (1994) Evidence for a bidirectional cross-tolerance between morphine and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 260: 5–13.[CrossRef][Medline]
Tokuyama S, Ho IK, and Yamamoto T (2000) A protein kinase inhibitor, H-7, blocks naloxone-precipitated changes in dopamine and its metabolites in the brains of opioid-dependent rats. Brain Res Bull 52: 363–369.[CrossRef][Medline]
Valverde O, Noble F, Beslot F, Dauge V, Fournie-Zaluski MC, and Roques BP (2001) Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol releases and facilitates the effects of endogenous enkephalins: reduction in morphine withdrawal syndrome without change in rewarding effect. Eur J Neurosci 13: 1816–1824.[CrossRef][Medline]
Valverde O, Tzavar E, Hanoune J, Roques BP, and Maldonado R (1996) Protein kinases in the rat nucleus accumbens are involved in the aversive component of opiate withdrawal. Eur J Neurosci 8: 2671–2678.[CrossRef][Medline]
Vela G, Ruiz-Gayo M, and Fuentes JA (1995) Anandamide decreases naloxoneprecipitated withdrawal signs in mice chronically treated with morphine. Neuropharmacology 34: 665–668.[CrossRef][Medline]
Walters CL, Aston-Jones G, and Druhan JP (2000) Expression of fos-related antigens in the nucleus accumbens during opiate withdrawal and their attenuation by a D2 dopamine receptor agonist. Neuropsychopharmacology 23: 307–315.[CrossRef][Medline]
Way EL, Loh HH, and Shen F (1969) Simultaneous quantitative assessment of morphine tolerance and physical dependence. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 167: 1–8.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Whistler JL, Chuang HH, Chu P, Jan LY, and von Zastrow M (1999) Functional dissociation of mu opioid receptor signaling and endocytosis: implications for the biology of opiate tolerance and addiction. Neuron 23: 737–746.[CrossRef][Medline]
Williams JT, Christie MJ, and Manzoni O (2001) Cellular and synaptic adaptations mediating opioid dependence. Physiol Rev 81: 299–343.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Yamaguchi T, Hagiwara Y, Tanaka H, Sugiyura T, Waku K, Shoyama Y, Watanabe S, and Yamamoto T (2001) Endogenous cannabinoid, 2-arachidonylglycerol, attenuates naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs in morphine-dependent mice. Brain Res 909: 121–126.[CrossRef][Medline]
Yoburn BC, Billings B, and Duttaroy A (1993) Opioid receptor regulation in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 265: 314–320.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: jpet.102.046870v1 305/3/812    most recent Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Cichewicz, D. L. Articles by Welch, S. P. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Cichewicz, D. L. Articles by Welch, S. P.